Ancient China and its Enemies : The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History

This comprehensive history of the northern frontier of China through the first millennium B.C. details the formation of two increasingly distinct cultural areas: the sedentary Chinese and the northern nomads. Nicola Di Cosmo explores the tensions existing between these two worlds as they became progressively more polarized, with the eventual creation of the nomadic Hsiung-nu empire in the north, and of the Chinese empire in the south. Di Cosmo investigates the origins of the antagonism between early China and its "barbarian" neighbors. Cover......Page 1 Half-title......Page 3 Title......Page 5 Copyright......Page 6 Contents......Page 7 Acknowledgments......Page 9 Introduction......Page 13 PART I......Page 23 A Note on Terminology......Page 25 Manchurian Plain......Page 28 Mongolia......Page 29 Sinkiang......Page 30 Pastoral Nomadism in the Steppe: Preconditions......Page 33 The Horse......Page 36 Andronovo’s Chariots......Page 39 Further Cultural Developments......Page 42 Early Nomadic (Scythian-type) Cultures in the Eurasian Steppe......Page 43 Chronology and Distribution......Page 47 Social and Economic Development......Page 49 Material Culture......Page 53 Conclusion......Page 54 Introduction: The Northern Complex......Page 56 Metallurgy: The First Frontier......Page 57 The Northern Zone Bronze Complex......Page 61 Early Contacts between China and the Northern Zone......Page 66 Identification of Early Nomads in the Northern Zone......Page 68 Periodization......Page 69 Early Nomadic Sites in the Northeast......Page 71 The Northwestern Complex......Page 80 Second Phase: Late Spring and Autumn to Early Warring States (c. Sixth–Fourth Century B.C.)......Page 82 Foci of Pastoral Nomadic Cultures......Page 86 Third Phase: Late Warring States (c. Mid-Fourth–Third Century B.C.)......Page 95 Conclusion......Page 99 PART II......Page 103 Introduction......Page 105 Cultural Statements in Political Context......Page 109 Peace or War?......Page 116 The Non-Chou as Conquerable......Page 119 The Contexts of Peace......Page 128 The Non-Chou as Resources......Page 134 Conclusion......Page 136 Introduction......Page 139 First Encounter......Page 140 Trade......Page 143 Cavalry......Page 146 Wall Building......Page 150 The Written Evidence......Page 152 Technical Features of the Northern Walls......Page 155 The Archaeological Context......Page 162 The Frontier after the Walls Were Built......Page 164 Conclusion: Configuring the Northern Walls in Late Warring States History......Page 167 PART III......Page 171 Introduction......Page 173 The Ethnic Origin of the Hsiung-nu......Page 175 Early State Formation......Page 179 Act I: General Meng T’ien, the Conqueror......Page 186 Act II: Modun, the Parricide......Page 187 Act III: A New Leadership......Page 188 The Formation of the Hsiung-nu State in Historical Perspective......Page 190 Crisis......Page 191 Militarization......Page 193 Centralization......Page 195 State Formation among the Hsiung-nu......Page 198 Hsiung-nu Expansion under Modun......Page 200 Han Kao-tsu’s Treaty of 198 B.C.......Page 202 The Ho-ch’in Treaty Policy and the Principle of Equality......Page 205 A New World Order......Page 208 The Ho-ch’in Policy during the Reigns of Emperors Wen and Ching......Page 211 Chia Yi and Ch’ao Ts’o......Page 213 Conclusion......Page 217 Introduction......Page 218 Why Did the Ho-ch’in Policy Come to an End?......Page 221 The Debates over Ho-Ch’in (135–134 B.C.)......Page 222 Limits and Ultimate Failure of the Ho-Ch’in Policy......Page 227 War and Expansion......Page 239 Han Wu-ti’s Offensive: Political and Technical Aspects......Page 241 The Han Campaigns......Page 248 The Question of the Western Regions......Page 259 The Western Regions as a Hsiung-nu Power Base......Page 261 Conclusion......Page 264 PART IV......Page 265 Introduction......Page 267 The Role of the Historian (Shih) in Early China......Page 268 History Writing during the Early Han......Page 270 The Hsiung-nu Described......Page 279 Sources......Page 280 Ethnography of the Hsiung-nu......Page 283 BURIAL CUSTOMS.......Page 285 Geographic Expansion and Trade......Page 293 The Economic Impact of the Hsiung-nu Wars......Page 298 Conclusion......Page 302 Introduction......Page 306 Ethnogenealogy of the Hsiung-nu......Page 309 Inner Asia and Correlative Cosmology......Page 316 Formulation of Prognostications Involving Northern Peoples......Page 318 Conclusion......Page 325 C......Page 331 F......Page 334 H......Page 335 J......Page 336 K......Page 337 L......Page 338 M......Page 339 P......Page 340 S......Page 341 T......Page 342 W......Page 344 Y......Page 345 Select Bibliography......Page 347 Index......Page 373 Relations Between Inner Asian Nomads And Chinese Are A Continuous Theme Throughout Chinese History. By Investigating The Formation Of Nomadic Cultures, By Analyzing The Evolution Of Patterns Of Interaction Along China's Northern Frontiers, And By Exploring How This Interaction Was Recorded In Early Chinese Historiography, This Book Explores The Origins Of The Cultural And Political Tensions Between These Two Civilizations Through The First Millennium Bc. The Main Purpose Of The Book Is To Analyze Ethnic, Cultural, And Political Frontiers Between Nomads And Chinese In The Historical Contexts That Led To Their Formation, And To Look At Cultural Perceptions Of 'others' As A Function Of The Same Historical Process. Based On Both Archaeological And Textual Sources, This Book Also Introduces A New Methodological Approach To Chinese Frontier History, Which Combines Extensive Factual Data With A Careful Scrutiny Of The Motives, Methods, And General Conception Of History That Informed The Chinese Historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien. Steppe Highway: Rise Of Pastoral Nomadism As A Eurasian Phenomenon -- Bronze, Eron And Gold: Evolution Of Nomadic Cultures On The Northern Frontier Of China -- Beasts And Birds: Historical Context Of Early Chinese Perceptions Of Northern Peoples -- Walls And Horses: Beginning Of Historical Contacts Between Horse-riding Nomads And Chinese States -- Those Who Draw The Bow: Rise Of The Hsiung-nu Nomadic Empire And The Political Unification Of The Nomads -- From Peace To War: China's Shift From Appeasement To Military Engagement -- In Search Of Grass And Water: Ethnography And History Of The North In The Historian's Records -- Taming The North: Rationalization Of The Nomads In Ssu-ma Ch'ien's Historical Thought Conclusion. Nicola Di Cosmo. Includes Bibliographical References (p. 335-359) And Index. Relations between Inner Asian nomads and Chinese are a continuous theme throughout Chinese history. By investigating the formation of nomadic cultures, by analyzing the evolution of patterns of interaction along China's frontiers, and by exploring how this interaction was recorded in historiography, this looks at the origins of the cultural and political tensions between these two civilizations through the first millennium BC. The main purpose of the book is to analyze ethnic, cultural, and political frontiers between nomads and Chinese in the historical contexts that led to their formation, and to look at cultural perceptions of'others'as a function of the same historical process. Based on both archaeological and textual sources, this 2002 book also introduces a new methodological approach to Chinese frontier history, which combines extensive factual data with a careful scrutiny of the motives, methods, and general conception of history that informed the Chinese historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien. Relations between Inner Asian nomads and Chinese are a continuous theme throughout Chinese history. By investigating the formation of nomadic cultures, by analyzing the evolution of patterns of interaction along China's frontiers, and by exploring how this interaction was recorded in historiography, this looks at the origins of the cultural and political tensions between these two civilizations through the first millennium BC. The main purpose of the book is to analyze ethnic, cultural, and political frontiers between nomads and Chinese in the historical contexts that led to their formation, and to look at cultural perceptions of 'others' as a function of the same historical process. Based on both archaeological and textual sources, this book also introduces a new methodological approach to Chinese frontier history, which combines extensive factual data with a careful scrutiny of the motives, methods, and general conception of history that informed the Chinese historian Ssu-ma Ch'ien. A comprehensive 2002 history of the northern frontier of China in the first millennium B.C., this work explores the tensions existing between the sedentary Chinese and the northern nomads. It was the first study to investigate the origins of the antagonism between early China and its 'barbarian' neighbors. The terminology for the regions inhabited by the nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples of Inner Asia in pre-historical and historical times is inherently unstable, given that geographic areas such as Central Asia, Inner Asia, the Northern Zone, and Central Eurasia are usually defined ad hoc.1