Anatomia dhe Fiziologjia e Njeriut - Leutrim Sh. Zeqiri - botimi i 10

Cover......Page 1 Brief Contents......Page 2 Title Page......Page 12 Copyright Page......Page 13 About the Authors......Page 14 Preface......Page 16 Acknowledgments......Page 20 Contents......Page 23 1.1. Form (Anatomy) Determines Function (Physiology)......Page 32 1.2. The Body’s Organization Ranges from Atoms to the Entire Organism......Page 34 1.3. What are the Requirements for Life?......Page 35 1.4. Homeostasis is Maintained by Negative Feedback......Page 39 1.5. Anatomical Terms Describe Body Directions, Regions, and Planes......Page 42 A Closer Look Medical Imaging: Illuminating the Body......Page 45 1.6. Many Internal Organs Lie in Membrane-Lined Body Cavities......Page 48 2.1. Matter is the Stuff of the Universe and Energy Moves Matter......Page 54 2.2. The Properties of an Element Depend on the Structure of its Atoms......Page 56 2.3. Atoms Bound Together Form Molecules; Different Molecules can make Mixtures......Page 59 2.4. The Three Types of Chemical Bonds are Ionic, Covalent, and Hydrogen......Page 61 2.5. Chemical Reactions Occur when Electrons are Shared, Gained, or Lost......Page 66 2.6. Inorganic Compounds Include Water, Salts, and Many Acids and Bases......Page 69 2.7. Organic Compounds are made by Dehydration Synthesis and Broken Down by Hydrolysis......Page 72 2.8. Carbohydrates Provide an Easily used Energy Source for the Body......Page 73 2.9. Lipids Insulate Body Organs, Build Cell Membranes, and Provide Stored Energy......Page 75 2.10. Proteins are the Body’s Basic Structural Material and have Many Vital Functions......Page 78 2.11. DNA and RNA Store, Transmit, and Help Express Genetic Information......Page 83 2.12. ATP Transfers Energy to Other Compounds......Page 85 3. Cells: The Living Units......Page 91 3.1. Cells are the Smallest Unit of Life......Page 92 3.2. The Fluid Mosaic Model Depicts the Plasma Membrane as a Double Layer of Phospholipids with Embedded Proteins......Page 94 3.3. Passive Membrane Transport is Diffusion of Molecules Down their Concentration Gradient ......Page 99 3.4. Active Membrane Transport Directly or Indirectly Uses ATP......Page 104 Focus Figure 3.1: Primary Active Transport: The Na+-K+ Pump......Page 105 3.5. Selective Diffusion Establishes the Membrane Potential......Page 110 3.6. Cell Adhesion Molecules and Membrane Receptors Allow the Cell to Interact with its Environment......Page 112 Focus Figure 3.2: G Proteins......Page 113 3.7. Cytoplasmic Organelles Each Perform a Specialized Task......Page 114 3.8. Cilia and Microvilli are Two Main Types of Cellular Extensions......Page 121 3.9. The Nucleus includes the Nuclear Envelope, the Nucleolus, and Chromatin......Page 122 3.10. The Cell Cycle Consists of Interphase and a Mitotic Phase......Page 127 3.11. Messenger RNA Carries Instructions from DNA for Building Proteins......Page 129 Focus Figure 3.3: Mitosis......Page 131 Focus Figure 3.4: Translation......Page 137 Developmental Aspects of Cells......Page 140 4. Tissue: The Living Fabric ......Page 146 4.1. Tissue Samples are Fixed, Sliced, and Stained for Microscopy......Page 147 4.2. Epithelial Tissue Covers Body Surfaces, Lines Cavities, and Forms Glands......Page 148 4.3. Connective Tissue is the Most Abundant and Widely Distributed Tissue in the Body......Page 157 4.4. Muscle Tissue is Responsible for Body Movement......Page 168 4.5. Nervous Tissue is a Specialized Tissue of the Nervous System......Page 170 A Closer Look Cancer—The Intimate Enemy......Page 171 4.6. The Cutaneous Membrane is Dry; Mucous and Serous Membranes are Wet......Page 172 4.7. Tissue Repair Involves Inflammation, Organization, and Regeneration......Page 174 Developmental Aspects of Tissues......Page 176 5.1. The Skin Consists of Two Layers: The Epidermis and Dermis......Page 181 5.2. The Epidermis is a Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium......Page 183 5.3. The Dermis Consists of Papillary and Reticular Layers......Page 185 5.4. Melanin, Carotene, and Hemoglobin Determine Skin Color......Page 187 5.5. Hair Consists of Dead, Keratinized Cells......Page 188 5.6. Nails are Scale-Like Modifications of the Epidermis......Page 191 5.7. Sweat Glands Help Control Body Temperature, and Sebaceous Glands Secrete Sebum......Page 192 5.8. First and Foremost, the Skin is a Barrier......Page 193 5.9. Skin Cancer and Burns are Major Challenges to the Body......Page 195 Developmental Aspects of the Integumentary System......Page 198 System Connections......Page 199 6.1. Hyaline, Elastic, and Fibrocartilage Help Form the Skeleton......Page 204 6.3. Bones are Classified by their Location and Shape......Page 206 6.4. The Gross Structure of All Bones Consists of Compact Bone Sandwiching Spongy Bone......Page 208 6.5. Bones Develop Either by Intramembranous or Endochondral Ossification......Page 214 6.6. Bone Remodeling Involves Bone Deposit and Removal......Page 218 6.7. Bone Repair Involves Hematoma and Callus Formation, and Remodeling......Page 220 6.8. Bone Disorders Result From Abnormal Bone Deposition and Resorption......Page 223 Developmental Aspects of Bones......Page 224 System Connections......Page 226 Part 1: The Axial Skeleton......Page 230 7.1. The Skull Consists of 8 Cranial Bones and 14 Facial Bones......Page 232 7.2. The Vertebral Column is a Flexible, Curved Support Structure......Page 249 7.3. The Thoracic Cage is the Bony Structure of the Chest......Page 255 7.4. Each Pectoral Girdle Consists of a Clavicle and a Scapula......Page 258 7.5. The Upper Limb Consists of the Arm, Forearm, and Hand......Page 261 7.6. The Hip Bones Attach to the Sacrum, Forming the Pelvic Girdle......Page 267 7.7. The Lower Limb Consists of the Thigh, Leg, and Foot......Page 271 Developmental Aspects of the Skeleton......Page 277 8.1. Joints are Classified into Three Structural and Three Functional Categories......Page 282 8.2. In Fibrous Joints, the Bones are Connected by Fibrous Tissue......Page 283 8.3. In Cartilaginous Joints, the Bones are Connected by Cartilage......Page 284 8.4. Synovial Joints have a Fluid-Filled Joint Cavity......Page 285 8.5. Five Examples Illustrate the Diversity of Synovial Joints......Page 291 Focus Figure 8.1: Synovial Joints......Page 293 8.6. Joints are Easily Damaged by Injury, Inflammation, and Degeneration......Page 302 A Closer Look Joints: From Knights in Shining Armor to Bionic Humans......Page 304 Developmental Aspects of Joints......Page 305 9. Muscles and Muscle Tissue......Page 309 9.1. There are Three Types of Muscle Tissue......Page 310 9.2. A Skeletal Muscle is Made Up of Muscle Fibers, Nerves, Blood Vessels, and Connective Tissues......Page 311 9.3. Skeletal Muscle Fibers Contain Calcium-Regulated Molecular Motors......Page 313 9.4. Motor Neurons Stimulate Skeletal Muscle Fibers to Contract......Page 319 Focus Figure 9.1: Events at the Neuromuscular Junction......Page 321 Focus Figure 9.2: Excitation-Contraction Coupling......Page 323 Focus Figure 9.3: Cross Bridge Cycle......Page 326 9.5. Wave Summation and Motor Unit Recruitment Allow Smooth, Graded Skeletal Muscle Contractions......Page 327 9.6. ATP for Muscle Contraction is Produced Aerobically or Anaerobically......Page 332 9.7. The Force, Velocity, and Duration of Skeletal Muscle Contractions are Determined by a Variety of Factors......Page 335 9.8. How Does Skeletal Muscle Respond to Exercise?......Page 338 9.9. Smooth Muscle is Nonstriated Involuntary Muscle......Page 339 Developmental Aspects of Muscles......Page 345 A Closer Look Athletes Looking Good and Doing Better with Anabolic Steroids?......Page 346 System Connections......Page 347 10.1. For Any Movement, Muscles Can Act in One of Three Ways ......Page 352 10.2. How are Skeletal Muscles Named?......Page 353 Focus Figure 10.1: Muscle Action......Page 354 10.3. Fascicle Arrangements Help Determine Muscle Shape and Force......Page 355 10.4. Muscles Acting With Bones Form Lever Systems......Page 356 10.5. A Muscle’s Origin and Insertion Determine its Action......Page 361 Table 10.1: Muscles of the Head, Part I: Facial Expression......Page 362 Table 10.2: Muscles of the Head, Part II: Mastication and Tongue Movement......Page 365 Table 10.3: Muscles of the Anterior Neck and Throat: Swallowing......Page 367 Table 10.4: Muscles of the Neck and Vertebral Column: Head Movements and Trunk Extension......Page 369 Table 10.5: Deep Muscles of the Thorax: Breathing......Page 373 Table 10.6: Muscles of the Abdominal Wall: Trunk Movements and Compression of Abdominal Viscera......Page 375 Table 10.7: Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and Perineum: Support of Abdominopelvic Organs......Page 377 Table 10.8: Superficial Muscles of the Anterior and Posterior Thorax: Movements of the Scapula and Arm......Page 379 Table 10.9: Muscles Crossing the Shoulder Joint: Movements of the Arm (Humerus)......Page 383 Table 10.10: Muscles Crossing the Elbow Joint: Flexion and Extension of the Forearm......Page 386 Table 10.11: Muscles of the Forearm: Movements of the Wrist, Hand, and Fingers......Page 387 Table 10.12: Summary: Actions of Muscles Acting on the Arm, Forearm, and Hand......Page 391 Table 10.13: Intrinsic Muscles of the Hand: Fine Movements of the Fingers......Page 393 Table 10.14: Muscles Crossing the Hip and Knee Joints: Movements of the Thigh and Leg......Page 396 Table 10.15: Muscles of the Leg: Movements of the Ankle and Toes......Page 403 Table 10.16: Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot: Toe Movement and Arch Support......Page 409 Table 10.17: Summary: Actions of Muscles Acting on the Thigh, Leg, and Foot......Page 413 11. Fundamentals of the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue......Page 419 11.1. The Nervous System Receives, Integrates, and Responds to Information......Page 420 11.2. Neuroglia Support and Maintain Neurons......Page 422 11.3. Neurons are the Structural Units of the Nervous System......Page 423 11.4. The Resting Membrane Potential Depends on Differences in Ion Concentration and Permeability......Page 429 Focus Figure 1 1.1: Resting Membrane Potential......Page 431 11.5. Graded Potentials are Brief, Short-Distance Signals within a Neuron......Page 432 11.6. Action Potentials are Brief, Long-Distance Signals within a Neuron......Page 433 Focus Figure 1 1.2: Action Potential......Page 435 11.7. Synapses Transmit Signals Between Neurons......Page 440 Focus Figure 1 1.3: Chemical Synapse......Page 442 A Closer Look Pleasure Me, Pleasure Me!......Page 443 11.8. Postsynaptic Potentials Excite or Inhibit the Receiving Neuron......Page 445 11.9. The Effect of a Neurotransmitter Depends on its Receptor......Page 448 11.10. Neurons Act Together, Making Complex Behaviors Possible......Page 454 Developmental Aspects of Neurons......Page 455 12. The Central Nervous System......Page 461 12.1. Folding During Development Determines the Complex Structure of the Adult Brain......Page 462 12.2. The Cerebral Hemispheres Consist of Cortex, White Matter, and the Basal Nuclei......Page 466 12.3. The Diencephalon Includes the Thalamus, Hypothalamus, and Epithalamus......Page 474 12.4. The Brain Stem Consists of the Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla Oblongata......Page 478 12.5. The Cerebellum Adjusts Motor Output, Ensuring Coordination and Balance......Page 481 12.6. Functional Brain Systems Span Multiple Brain Structures......Page 483 12.7. The Interconnected Structures of the Brain Allow Higher Mental Functions......Page 485 12.8. The Brain is Protected by Bone, Meninges, Cerebrospinal Fluid, and the Blood Brain Barrier......Page 491 12.9. Brain Injuries and Disorders have Devastating Consequences......Page 495 12.10. The Spinal Cord is a Reflex Center and Conduction Pathway......Page 497 12.11. Neuronal Pathways Carry Sensory and Motor Information to and from the Brain......Page 503 Developmental Aspects of the Central Nervous System......Page 508 13. The Peripheral Nervous System and Reflex Activity......Page 516 13.1. Sensory Receptors are Activated by Changes in the Internal or External Environment......Page 517 13.2. Receptors, Ascending Pathways, and Cerebral Cortex Process Sensory Information......Page 520 13.3. Nerves are Cordlike Bundles of Axons that Conduct Sensory and Motor Impulses......Page 523 13.4. There are 12 Pairs of Cranial Nerves......Page 525 13.5. 31 Pairs of Spinal Nerves Innervate the Body......Page 534 13.7. There are Three Levels of Motor Control......Page 544 13.8. The Reflex Arc Enables Rapid and Predictable Responses......Page 546 13.9. Spinal Reflexes are Somatic Reflexes Mediated by the Spinal Cord......Page 547 Focus Figure 1 3.1: Stretch Reflex......Page 549 Developmental Aspects of the Peripheral Nervous System......Page 553 14. The Autonomic Nervous System......Page 558 14.1. The ANS Differs from the Somatic Nervous System in that it can Stimulate or Inhibit its Effectors......Page 559 14.2. The ANS Consists of the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions......Page 561 14.3. Long Preganglionic Parasympathetic Fibers Originate in the Craniosacral CNS......Page 563 14.4. Short Preganglionic Sympathetic Fibers Originate in the Thoracolumbar CNS......Page 564 14.5. Visceral Reflex Arcs have the Same Five Components as Somatic Reflex Arcs ......Page 568 14.6. Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine are the Major ANS Neurotransmitters......Page 569 14.7. The Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Divisions Usually Produce Opposite Effects......Page 571 14.8. The Hypothalamus Oversees ANS Activity......Page 573 Developmental Aspects of the ANS......Page 574 System Connections......Page 575 15. The Special Senses......Page 579 15.1. The Eye has Three Layers, a Lens, and Humors, and is Surrounded by Accessory Structures......Page 580 15.2. The Cornea and Lens Focus Light on the Retina......Page 588 15.3. Phototransduction Begins when Light Activates Visual Pigments in Retinal Photoreceptors......Page 592 15.4. Visual Information From the Retina Passes through Relay Nuclei to the Visual Cortex......Page 598 15.5. Airborne Chemicals are Detected by Olfactory Receptors in the Nose......Page 600 15.6. Dissolved Chemicals are Detected by Receptor Cells in Taste Buds......Page 603 15.7. The Ear has Three Major Areas......Page 605 15.8. Sound is a Pressure Wave that Stimulates Mechanosensitive Cochlear Hair Cells......Page 610 15.9. Sound Information is Processed and Relayed through Brain Stem and Thalamic Nuclei to the Auditory Cortex......Page 614 15.10. Hair Cells in the Maculae and Cristae Ampullares Monitor Head Position and Movement......Page 615 15.11. Ear Abnormalities Can Affect Hearing, Equilibrium, or Both......Page 619 Developmental Aspects of the Special Senses......Page 620 16. The Endocrine System......Page 626 16.1. The Endocrine System is One of the Body’s Two Major Control Systems......Page 627 16.3. Hormones Act through Second Messengers or by Activating Specific Genes ......Page 628 16.4. Three Types of Stimuli Cause Hormone Release......Page 632 16.5. Cells Respond to a Hormone if they have a Receptor for that Hormone ......Page 633 16.6. The Hypothalamus Controls Release of Hormones from the Pituitary Gland in Two Different Ways ......Page 634 Focus Figure 1 6.1: Hypothalamus and Pituitary Interactions......Page 635 16.7. The Thyroid Gland Controls Metabolism......Page 642 16.8. The Parathyroid Glands are Primary Regulators of Blood Calcium Levels......Page 646 16.9. The Adrenal Glands Produce Hormones Involved in Electrolyte Balance and the Stress Response......Page 647 16.11. The Pancreas, Gonads, and Most Other Organs Secrete Hormones......Page 653 Developmental Aspects of the Endocrine System......Page 658 A Closer Look Sweet Revenge: Taming the Diabetes Monster?......Page 659 System Connections......Page 661 17. Blood......Page 666 17.2. Blood Consists of Plasma and Formed Elements......Page 667 17.3. Erythrocytes Play a Crucial Role in Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport......Page 669 17.4. Leukocytes Defend the Body......Page 675 17.6. Hemostasis Prevents Blood Loss......Page 681 17.7. Transfusion Can Replace Lost Blood......Page 687 Developmental Aspects of Blood......Page 690 18. The Cardiovascular System: The Heart......Page 694 18.1. The Heart has Four Chambers and Pumps Blood through the Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits......Page 695 18.2. Heart Valves Make Blood Flow in One Direction......Page 702 18.3. Blood Flows from Atrium to Ventricle, and then to Either the Lungs or the Rest of the Body......Page 704 Focus Figure 1 8.1: Blood Flow through the Heart......Page 705 18.4. Intercalated Discs Connect Cardiac Muscle Fibers into a Functional Syncytium......Page 707 18.5. Pacemaker Cells Trigger Action Potentials throughout the Heart......Page 710 18.6. The Cardiac Cycle Describes the Mechanical Events Associated with Blood Flow through the Heart......Page 716 18.7. Stroke Volume and Heart Rate are Regulated to Alter Cardiac Output......Page 719 Developmental Aspects of the Heart......Page 723 19. The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels......Page 729 Part 1: Blod Vesel Structure and Function......Page 730 19.1. Most Blood Vessel Walls have Three Layers......Page 732 19.3. Capillaries are Exchange Vessels......Page 733 19.4. Veins are Blood Reservoirs that Return Blood Toward the Heart......Page 735 19.5. Anastomoses are Special Interconnections Between Blood Vessels......Page 736 Part 2: Physiology of Circulation......Page 737 19.6. Blood Flows From High to Low Pressure Against Resistance......Page 738 19.7. Blood Pressure Decreases as Blood Flows from Arteries through Capillaries and into Veins......Page 739 19.8. Blood Pressure is Regulated by Short- and Long-Term Controls......Page 742 19.9. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Controls Determine Blood Flow through Tissues......Page 749 19.10. Slow Blood Flow through Capillaries Promotes Diffusion of Nutrients and Gases, and Bulk Flow of Fluids ......Page 753 Focus Figure 19.1: Bulk Flow Across Capillary Walls......Page 755 Part 3: Circulatory Pathways : Blood Vessels of the Body......Page 757 19.11. The Vessels of the Systemic Circulation Transport Blood to All Body Tissues......Page 758 Table 19.3: Pulmonary and Systemic Circulations......Page 759 Table 19.4: The Aorta and Major Arteries of the Systemic Circulation......Page 761 Table 19.5: Arteries of the Head and Neck......Page 763 Table 19.6: Arteries of the Upper Limbs and Thorax......Page 765 Table 19.7: Arteries of the Abdomen......Page 767 Table 19.8: Arteries of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs......Page 771 Table 19.9: The Venae Cavae and the Major Veins of the Systemic Circulation......Page 773 Table 19.10: Veins of the Head and Neck......Page 775 Table 19.11: Veins of the Upper Limbs and Thorax......Page 777 Table 19.12: Veins of the Abdomen......Page 779 Table 19.13: Veins of the Pelvis and Lower Limbs......Page 781 Developmental Aspects of Blood Vessels......Page 782 System Connections......Page 783 20. The Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Organs and Tissues......Page 788 20.1. The Lymphatic System Includes Lymphatic Vessels, Lymph, and Lymph Nodes......Page 789 20.2. Lymphoid Cells and Tissues are Found in Lymphoid Organs and in Connective Tissue of Other Organs......Page 792 20.3. Lymph Nodes Filter Lymph and House Lymphocytes......Page 793 20.4. The Spleen Removes Bloodborne Pathogens and Aged Red Blood Cells......Page 795 20.5. Malt Guards the Body’s Entryways Against Pathogens......Page 796 20.6. T Lymphocytes Mature in the Thymus......Page 797 Developmental Aspects of the Lymphatic System and Lymphoid Organs and Tissues......Page 798 System Connections......Page 799 21. The Immune System: Innate and Adaptive Body Defenses......Page 802 21.1. Surface Barriers Act as the First Line of Defense to Keep Invaders out of the Body......Page 803 21.2. Innate Internal Defenses are Cells and Chemicals that Act as the Second Line of Defense......Page 804 Part 2: Adaptive Defenses......Page 811 21.3. Antigens are Substances that Trigger the Body’s Adaptive Defenses......Page 812 21.4. B and T Lymphocytes and Antigen-Presenting Cells are Cells of the Adaptive Immune Response......Page 813 21.5. In Humoral Immunity, Antibodies are Produced that Target Extracellular Antigens ......Page 816 21.6. Cellular Immunity Consists of T Lymphocytes that Direct Adaptive Immunity or Attack Cellular Targets......Page 822 21.7. Insufficient or Overactive Immune Responses Create Problems......Page 830 Developmental Aspects of the Immune System......Page 833 22. The Respiratory System......Page 838 Part 1: Functional Anatomy......Page 839 22.1. The Upper Respiratory System Warms, Humidifies, and Filters Air......Page 840 22.2. The Lower Respiratory System Consists of Conducting and Respiratory Zone Structures......Page 844 22.3. Each Multilobed Lung Occupies its Own Pleural Cavity......Page 852 22.4. Volume Changes Cause Pressure Changes, Which Cause Air to Move......Page 854 22.5. Measuring Respiratory Volumes, Capacities, and Flow Rates Helps Us Assess Ventilation......Page 859 22.6. Gases Exchange by Diffusion between the Blood, Lungs, and Tissues......Page 861 22.7. Oxygen is Transported by Hemoglobin, and Carbon Dioxide is Transported in Three Different Ways......Page 865 Focus Figure 22.1 The Oxygen-Hemoglobin Dissociation Curve......Page 867 22.8. Respiratory Centers in the Brain Stem Control Breathing with Input from Chemoreceptors and Higher Brain Centers......Page 871 22.9. Exercise and High Altitude Bring about Respiratory Adjustments......Page 876 22.10. Lung Diseases are Major Causes of Disability and Death......Page 877 Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory System......Page 879 System Connections......Page 881 23. The Digestive System......Page 887 Part 1: Overview of the Digestive System......Page 888 23.1. What Major Processes Occur During Digestive System Activity?......Page 889 23.2. The GI Tract has Four Layers and is Usually Surrounded by Peritoneum......Page 890 23.3. The GI Tract has its Own Nervous System Called the Enteric Nervous System......Page 893 Part 2: Functional Anatomy of the Digestive System......Page 894 23.4. Ingestion Occurs Only at the Mouth......Page 895 23.5. The Pharynx and Esophagus Move Food from the Mouth to the Stomach......Page 900 23.6. The Stomach Temporarily Stores Food and Begins Protein Digestion......Page 903 23.7. The Liver Secretes Bile; the Pancreas Secretes Digestive Enzymes......Page 912 23.8. The Small Intestine is the Major Site for Digestion and Absorption......Page 919 23.9. The Large Intestine Absorbs Water and Eliminates Feces......Page 925 23.11. How is Each Type of Nutrient Processed?......Page 931 Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System......Page 937 System Connections......Page 939 24. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Energy Balance......Page 945 24.1. Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins Supply Energy and are Used as Building Blocks......Page 946 24.2. Most Vitamins Act as Coenzymes; Minerals have many Roles in the Body......Page 950 Part 2: Metabolism......Page 952 24.3. Metabolism is the Sum of All Biochemical Reactions in the Body......Page 953 24.4. Carbohydrate Metabolism is the Central Player in ATP Production......Page 955 Focus Figure 2 4.1: Oxidative Phosphorylation......Page 960 24.5. Lipid Metabolism is Key for Long-Term Energy Storage and Release......Page 964 24.6. Amino Acids are used to Build Proteins or for Energy......Page 967 24.7. Energy is Stored in the Absorptive State and Released in the Postabsorptive State......Page 968 24.8. The Liver Metabolizes, Stores, and Detoxifies......Page 973 Part 3: Energy Balance......Page 976 24.9. Neural and Hormonal Factors Regulate Food Intake......Page 977 A Closer Look Obesity: Magical Solution Wanted......Page 979 24.10. Thyroxine is the Major Hormone that Controls Basal Metabolic Rate......Page 981 24.11. The Hypothalamus Acts as the Body’s Thermostat......Page 982 Developmental Aspects of Nutrition and Metabolism......Page 985 25. The Urinary System......Page 992 25.1. The Kidneys have Three Distinct Regions and a Rich Blood Supply......Page 994 25.2. Nephrons are the Functional Units of the Kidney......Page 998 25.4. Urine Formation, Step 1: The Glomeruli Make Filtrate......Page 1002 25.5. Urine Formation, Step 2: Most of the Filtrate is Reabsorbed into the Blood......Page 1007 25.7. The Kidneys Create and Use an Osmotic Gradient to Regulate Urine Concentration and Volume......Page 1012 Focus Figure 2 5.1: Medullary Osmotic Gradient......Page 1013 25.8. Renal Function is Evaluated by Analyzing Blood and Urine......Page 1017 25.9. The Ureters, Bladder, and Urethra Transport, Store, and Eliminate Urine......Page 1019 Developmental Aspects of the Urinary System......Page 1023 26. Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance......Page 1029 26.1. Body Fluids Consist of Water and Solutes in Three Main Compartments......Page 1030 26.2. Both Intake and Output of Water are Regulated......Page 1032 26.3. Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, and Phosphate Levels are Tightly Regulated......Page 1036 26.4. Chemical Buffers and Respiratory Regulation Rapidly Minimize PH Changes......Page 1042 26.5. Renal Regulation is a Long-Term Mechanism for Controlling Acid-Base Balance......Page 1045 26.6. Abnormalities of Acid-Base Balance are Classified as Metabolic or Respiratory......Page 1048 A Closer Look Sleuthing: Using Blood Values to Determine the Cause of Acidosis or Alkalosis......Page 1050 Developmental Aspects of Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance......Page 1051 System Connections......Page 1052 27. The Reproductive System......Page 1057 Part 1: Anatomy of the Male Reproductive System......Page 1058 27.1. The Testes are Enclosed and Protected by the Scrotum......Page 1059 27.2. The Penis is the Copulatory Organ of the Male......Page 1061 27.3. Sperm Travel from the Testes to the Body Exterior through a System of Ducts ......Page 1063 27.4. The Male Accessory Glands Produce the Bulk of Semen......Page 1064 27.5. The Male Sexual Response includes Erection and Ejaculation......Page 1066 27.6. Spermatogenesis is the Sequence of Events that Leads to Formation of Sperm......Page 1067 27.7. Male Reproductive Function is Regulated by Hypothalamic, Anterior Pituitary, and Testicular Hormones......Page 1073 27.8. Immature Eggs Develop in Follicles in the Ovaries ......Page 1075 27.9. The Female Duct System includes the Uterine Tubes, Uterus, and Vagina ......Page 1077 27.10. The External Genitalia of the Female include those Structures that Lie External to the Vagina ......Page 1082 27.11. The Mammary Glands Produce Milk......Page 1083 Part 4: Physiology of the Female Reproductive System......Page 1084 27.12. Oogenesis is the Sequence of Events that Leads to the Formation of Ova ......Page 1085 27.13. The Ovarian Cycle Consists of the Follicular Phase and the Luteal Phase......Page 1086 27.14. Female Reproductive Function is Regulated by Hypothalamic, Anterior Pituitary, and Ovarian Hormones......Page 1089 27.16. Sexually Transmitted Infections Cause Reproductive and Other Disorders......Page 1094 Developmental Aspects of the Reproductive System......Page 1095 System Connections......Page 1099 28. Pregnancy and Human Development......Page 1105 28.1. Fertilization is the Joining of Sperm and Egg Chromosomes to Form a Zygote......Page 1106 28.2. Embryonic Development Begins as the Zygote Undergoes Cleavage and Forms a Blastocyst En Route to the Uterus......Page 1108 Focus Figure 28.1: Sperm Penetration and the Blocks to Polyspermy......Page 1109 28.3. Implantation Occurs When the Embryo Burrows into the Uterine Wall, Triggering Placenta Formation......Page 1112 28.4. Embryonic Events include Gastrula Formation and Tissue Differentiation, which are followed by Rapid Growth of the Fetus ......Page 1116 28.5. During Pregnancy, the Mother Undergoes Anatomical, Physiological, and Metabolic Changes......Page 1125 28.6. The Three Stages of Labor are the Dilation, Expulsion, and Placental Stages......Page 1127 28.8. Lactation is Milk Secretion by the Mammary Glands in Response to Prolactin......Page 1129 A Closer Look Contraception: To Be or Not To Be ......Page 1131 28.9. Assisted Reproductive Technology May Aid an Infertile Couple’s Ability to have Offspring......Page 1132 29. Heredity......Page 1137 29.1. Genes are the Vocabulary of Genetics......Page 1138 29.2. Genetic Variation Results from Independent Assortment, Crossover of Homologues, and Random Fertilization ......Page 1139 29.3. Several Patterns of Inheritance have Long Been Known......Page 1141 29.4. Environmental Factors May Influence or Override Gene Expression......Page 1143 29.5. Factors Other Than Nuclear DNA Sequence can Determine Inheritance ......Page 1144 29.6. Genetic Screening is used to Determine or Predict Genetic Disorders......Page 1145 Answers Appendix......Page 1150 A: The Metric System......Page 1168 B: Functional Groups in Organic Molecules......Page 1170 C: The Amino Acids......Page 1171 D: Two Important Metabolic Pathways......Page 1172 E: Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 1175 F: Reference Values for Selected Blood and Urine Studies......Page 1176 G: The Genetic Code......Page 1181 Glossary......Page 1182 Photo and Illustration Credits......Page 1206 Index......Page 1208 Word Roots, Prefixes, Suffixes, and Combining Forms......Page 1268 Back Cover......Page 1274