Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cells : From Tailored Materials to Novel Applications

Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel CellsBuild the fuel cells of the future with this cutting-edge material Alkaline anion exchange membranes (AAEMs) are cutting-edge polyelectrolyte materials with growing renewable energy applications including fuel cells, batteries, hydrogen electrolyzers and electrodialysis technologies. Their use in relatively new alkaline exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs) is designed to produce cost-effective clean energy (electricity) produced by a chemical reaction. Rigorous studies are being conducted to meet the requirements of AAEMs precisely tailored for high anion conductivity and durability for future high energy efficient devices. Hence, over the past few years the academic and industrial scientific communities have explored various polymeric, composite and inorganic materials and studied their properties as a potential AAEM. The accumulated literature in this area of investigation is vast and in order to provide the community with the tools needed to strive forward, there is a clear need to condense this information in a single volume. Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cellsmeets this need with a comprehensive overview of the properties of these membranes and their applications. The book considers recent developments, common challenges, and the long-term prospects for this field of research and engineering. It constitutes a one-stop resource for the development and production of AAEM fuel cells and related electrochemical applications. Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cellsreaders will find: Discussion of electrochemical applications like redox flow batteries, water electrolysis, and many more. Detailed treatment of specially tailored cationic groups such as quaternary ammonium and guanidinium. Expert advice on efficient fabrication and electrode assembly. Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cellsis ideal for electrochemists, materials scientists, polymer chemists, electrical engineers, and anyone working in power technology or related fields. Cover Half Title Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cells: From Tailored Materials to Novel Applications Copyright Contents Preface 1. An Introduction to Polymeric Electrolyte Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Different Types of Electrolytes 1.3 Why Polymer Electrolytes Are Important? 1.4 Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) 1.4.1 Fundamental Concepts of Anion Exchange Membranes as Polymer Electrolytes 1.4.2 Classification of AEM 1.4.3 Pros and Cons of AEM 1.4.4 Application of AEM 1.5 AEMs in Fuel Cells 1.6 Conclusion and Outlook References 2. Historical and Recent Developments inAnion Exchange Membranes (AEM) 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Fuel Cell: Conventional Versus Modern Approach 2.3 Role of AEM in Fuel Cell Technology 2.4 Preparation of AEMs 2.5 Challenges in Existing AEMs 2.6 Recent Advancement 2.7 Major Challenges 2.8 Commercially Available AEMs 2.9 Current Scenario and Future Market 2.10 Summary and Concluding Remarks References 3. Fabrication Processes and Characterization Proceduresof Anion Exchange Membranes 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Fabrication Processes of Anion Exchange Membranes 3.2.1 AEM of Cationic Charged Polymers 3.2.2 AEMs of Ion-Solvating Polymers 3.2.3 AEMs with Nanofibers 3.2.4 Hybrid AEMs 3.2.5 Recent Developments in AEMs 3.3 Characterization Procedures of AEMs 3.3.1 Ionic Conductivity 3.3.2 IEC, Swelling Ratio, and Water Content 3.3.3 Mechanical and Thermal Properties 3.3.4 Chemical Stability 3.3.5 Chemical Composition and Morphological Characterization 3.3.6 Other Characterizations 3.4 Conclusions References 4. Types of Polymeric Electrolyte Anion Exchange Membranes: Heterogeneous and Grafted Membranes, Interpenetrating Polymer Networks and Homogeneous Membranes 4.1 Heterogenous Anion Exchange Membranes 4.1.1 Ion-Solvating Polymers 4.1.2 Hybrid Membranes 4.2 Grafted Anion Exchange Membranes 4.2.1 Radiation-Grafted Membranes 4.2.2 Side Chain Grafted Membranes 4.2.3 Long-side-chain Grafted Membranes 4.3 Interpenetrating Anion Exchange Membranes 4.3.1 Anion Exchange Membranes Based on Interpenetrating Polymer Networks (IPN) 4.3.2 Anion Exchange Membranes Based on Semi-Interpenetrating Polymer Networks (Semi-IPN) 4.4 Homogenous Membranes 4.4.1 Homogenous Membranes Based on Poly(arylene ether)s 4.4.2 Homogenous Membranes Based on Poly(styrene)s 4.4.3 Homogenous Membranes Based on Poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide) 4.4.4 Fluorene-Containing Homogenous Membranes 4.4.5 Homogenous Membranes Based on Polyolefins 4.4.6 Other Kinds of Homogenous Membranes 4.5 Conclusions References 5. Proton Exchange Membranes Versus Anion Exchange Membranes 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) 5.2.1 Classification of PEM Membranes Based on the Materials of Synthesis 5.2.1.1 Perfluorinated Ionomeric Membranes 5.2.1.2 Partially Fluorinated Hydrocarbon Membranes 5.2.1.3 Non-fluorinated Hydrocarbon Membranes 5.2.1.4 Acid–Base Complexes 5.2.2 Preparation Methods of PEM 5.2.3 Proton Transport Mechanism in PEM 5.2.4 Current State of Art of PEM 5.3 Comparison with AEM 5.3.1 Materials Used for Preparations 5.3.2 Investigative Methods and Measurement for Ion-Exchange Membranes 5.3.2.1 Ionic Conductivity 5.3.2.2 Water Absorption or Swelling Index 5.3.2.3 Ion-Exchange Capacity (IEC) of the Membrane 5.3.2.4 Thermal Stability and Mechanical Strength 5.3.2.5 Durability of the Membranes 5.3.3 Water Management 5.3.4 Transport Mechanism 5.3.5 Catalyst Used in PEMFC and AEMFC 5.3.6 MEA Fabrication 5.3.7 Fuels Used in Fuel Cells 5.3.8 Fuel Cell Efficiency 5.4 Conclusion References 6. Transport and Conductive Mechanisms in Anion Exchange Membranes 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Transport Mechanisms of Hydroxide Ion in AEMs 6.3 AEM Structure–Transport Efficiency Relationships 6.4 Ion Conductivity Measurement 6.5 Carbonation Process in AEMs 6.5.1 Elucidating the Dynamics of Carbonation 6.5.2 Impact of Carbonation on AEM and AEMFC 6.5.3 Strategies to Avoid Carbonation of OH Ions 6.6 Conclusion and Outlook References 7. Anion Exchange Membranes Based on Quaternary Ammonium Cations and Modified Quaternary Ammonium Cations 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Background of AEMFC Invention 7.2 Quaternary Ammonium (QA)-Based AEMs – Recent Developments and Performances 7.3 Other Factors Affecting Performance of Fuel Cells 7.4 Summary and Perspectives Acknowledgments References 8. Guanidinium Cations and Their Derivatives-Based Anion Exchange Membranes 8.1 Introduction 8.2 General Synthetic Method of Various Guanidiniums 8.3 Degradation Mechanism and Alkaline Stability of Guanidinium Cations 8.4 Preparation of Guanidinium and Their Derivative-Based AEMs 8.4.1 Benzyl-guanidinium AEMs 8.4.2 Alkyl-guanidinium AEMs 8.4.3 Aryl-guanidinium AEMs 8.4.4 Other Guanidinium-Based AEMs 8.5 Prospect References 9. Anion Exchange Membranes Based on Imidazolium and Triazolium Cations 9.1 Introduction 9.2 AEMs Based on Imidazolium Cations 9.2.1 AEMs Based on Imidazolium-type Ionic Liquids 9.2.2 Imidazole Containing Polymers and Composites 9.3 AEM Based on Triazolium Cations 9.4 Summary and Future Perspectives Acknowledgments References 10. Radiation-Grafted and Cross-linked Polymers-Based Anion Exchange Membranes 10.1 Historic Overview 10.2 Sources of Radiation 10.3 Types of Radiation-Induced Grafting 10.3.1 Absorbed Dose 10.3.2 Dose Rate 10.3.3 Atmosphere During Irradiation 10.3.4 Temperature During Irradiation 10.4 Base Polymer 10.5 Grafting Solution 10.6 Physicochemical Properties of RG-AEMs 10.7 Cross-linking in AEMs 10.7.1 Physical Cross-linking 10.7.2 Chemical Cross-linking 10.7.2.1 Cross-linking with Diamine Agents 10.7.2.2 Chemical Cross-linking Reaction with Other Agents 10.7.2.3 Other Methods of Producing Cross-linked Membranes 10.8 Conclusions References 11. Degradation Mechanisms of Anion Exchange Membranes due to Alkali Hydrolysis and Radical Oxidative Species 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Necessity to Investigate the Degradation Mechanism in AEMs 11.3 Structure and Degradation Mechanism of Tailored Anion Exchange Groups and Polymers 11.3.1 Alkaline Hydrolysis of Cationic Head Groups 11.3.2 Alkaline Hydrolysis of Novel Metallocenium Based AEMs 11.3.3 Alkaline Hydrolysis of Polymers 11.3.3.1 Degradation Mechanism in Poly(arylene ethers) (PAEs) 11.3.3.2 Degradation Mechanism in Fluorinated Polymer 11.3.3.3 Degradation Mechanism in Poly(benzimidazole) Based Polymers 11.3.3.4 Degradation Mechanism in Poly(alkyl) and Poly(arene) Based Polymers 11.3.4 Free Radical Oxidative Degradation of AEM 11.4 Prospects and Outlook 11.5 Conclusion References 12. Computational Approaches to Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Why Computational Studies Are Important in Anion Exchange Membranes? 12.3 Tools of In Silico Approaches in Anion Exchange Membranes 12.3.1 Electronic Structure Methods in Anion Exchange Membranes 12.3.1.1 Analysis on HOMO–LUMO Energies and Mulliken Charges 12.3.1.2 Analysis on ESP 12.3.1.3 Analysis on Chemical Structure and Bonding Nature 12.3.1.4 Analysis on Degradation Pathways 12.3.2 Molecular Dynamics in Anion Exchange Membranes 12.3.3 Continuum Modeling and Simulation in Anion Exchange Membranes 12.3.4 Monte Carlo Simulations in Anion Exchange Membranes 12.3.5 Machine Learning in Anion Exchange Membranes 12.4 Challenges and Outlook 12.5 Conclusion References 13. An Overview of Commercial and Non-commercial Anion Exchange Membranes 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Characteristics and Existing Problems of Commercial Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes 13.1.1.1 Fumatech: Fumasep 13.1.1.2 Tokuyama: A201 13.1.1.3 Ionomr: AEMION 13.1.1.4 Dioxide Materials: Sustainion 13.1.1.5 Orion Polymer: Orion TM1 13.1.1.6 Xergy: Xion-Dappion, Xion-Durion, Xion-Pention 13.1.1.7 Versogen: PiperION 13.1.1.8 Membranes International Inc.: AMI-7001 13.1.1.9 Asahi Glass: Selemion AMV 13.1.2 Characteristics and Existing Problems of Non-Commercial Alkaline Anion Exchange Membrane 13.1.3 Strategies to Improve the Properties of AEMs 13.1.3.1 The Regulation of Microphase Morphologies 13.1.3.2 Constructing Free Volumes 13.1.3.3 The Introduction of Cross-linking Structures 13.1.3.4 Other Physical Methods 13.1.3.5 The Development of Novel Cationic Functional Groups and Aryl Ether-free Main Chains with High Stability 13.2 Summary and Outlooks Acknowledgment References 14. Membrane Electrode Assembly Preparation for Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (AEMFC): Selection of Ionomers and How to Avoid CO2 Poisoning 14.1 The Preparation of Membrane Electrode Assembly 14.2 Selection of Ionomers 14.2.1 Commercial Ionomers 14.2.2 Custom-made Ionomers 14.3 Effect of CO2 on AEMFCs 14.3.1 Effect of CO2 on Ex Situ Measured Conductivity 14.3.2 Effect of CO2 on Electrochemical Reactions on the Electrodes 14.3.3 Effect of CO2 on Fuel Cell Performance 14.4 Strategies to Avoid CO2 Poisoning 14.4.1 Reducing HCO3/CO32 Concentration Through Self-purging 14.4.2 Increasing the Current Density to Improve the Outlet of CO2 14.4.3 Filtered the Feeding Air 14.5 The Improvement of AEMFC Output 14.5.1 Electrode Optimization 14.5.2 Catalyst Optimization 14.5.3 Optimization of Operation Conditions 14.6 Conclusions References 15. Applications of Anion Exchange Membranes Excluding Fuel Cells 15.1 AEMs in Alkaline Water Electrolysis 15.1.1 Working Principle 15.1.2 Research Progress of AEMs for AEMWE 15.1.3 Summary and Future Perspectives 15.2 AEMs in CO2 Electrolysis 15.3 AEMs in Redox Flow Batteries 15.3.1 Working Principle 15.3.2 Research Progress of AEMs for VRFBs 15.3.3 Summary and Future Perspectives 15.4 AEMs in Alkali Metal–Air Batteries 15.4.1 Working Principle 15.4.2 Research Progress of AEMs for rechargeable ZABs 15.4.3 Summary and Future Perspectives 15.5 AEMs in Reverse Electrodialysis 15.5.1 Working Principle 15.5.2 Research Progress of AEMs for RED 15.5.3 Summary and Future Perspectives 15.6 AEMs in Electrodialysis 15.6.1 Working Principle 15.6.2 Research Progress of AEMs for ED 15.6.3 Summary and Future Perspectives 15.7 AEMs in Diffusion Dialysis 15.7.1 Working Principle 15.7.2 Research Progress of AEMs for DD 15.7.3 Summary and Future Perspectives 15.8 AEMs in Microbial Fuel Cells 15.8.1 Working Principle 15.8.2 Research Progress AEMs for MFCs 15.8.3 Summary and Future Perspectives 15.9 AEMs in Other Applications 15.10 Summary Abbreviations References 16. Research Challenges and Future Directions on Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cells 16.1 Prelude to Anion Exchange Membranes 16.2 Progress in AEM Development 16.2.1 Polyarylene-Based AEMs 16.2.2 Polyethylene-Based AEMs 16.2.3 Main Chain-Based AEMs 16.2.4 Block Copolymer Based AEMs 16.2.5 Long Side-Chain AEMs 16.2.6 Cross-linked AEMs 16.2.7 Organic–Inorganic Composite AEMs 16.2.8 AEMs Based on Cationic Functional Groups 16.2.9 Challenges Developing Long-Lasting AEMs 16.2.10 Chemical Stability 16.2.10.1 Alkaline Stability 16.2.10.2 Oxidative Stability 16.2.11 Ionic Conductivity 16.2.12 Mechanical and Dimensional Stability 16.3 Durability of Anion Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells 16.3.1 Water Management 16.3.2 Carbonation Effect 16.3.3 Membrane–Electrode Interface 16.4 Future Directions 16.4.1 Expansion of AEM Development 16.4.1.1 Ionomer Development 16.4.1.2 Catalyst Development 16.4.1.3 Membrane Electrode Assembly Developments 16.5 Concluding Remarks Acknowledgments References Index Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cells Build the fuel cells of the future with this cutting-edge material Alkaline anion exchange membranes (AAEMs) are cutting-edge polyelectrolyte materials with growing renewable energy applications including fuel cells, batteries, hydrogen electrolyzers and electrodialysis technologies. Their use in relatively new alkaline exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs) is designed to produce cost-effective clean energy (electricity) produced by a chemical reaction. Rigorous studies are being conducted to meet the requirements of AAEMs precisely tailored for high anion conductivity and durability for future high energy efficient devices. Hence, over the past few years the academic and industrial scientific communities have explored various polymeric, composite and inorganic materials and studied their properties as a potential AAEM. The accumulated literature in this area of investigation is vast and in order to provide the community with the tools needed to strive forward, there is a clear need to condense this information in a single volume. Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cells meets this need with a comprehensive overview of the properties of these membranes and their applications. The book considers recent developments, common challenges, and the long-term prospects for this field of research and engineering. It constitutes a one-stop resource for the development and production of AAEM fuel cells and related electrochemical applications. Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cells readers will find: Discussion of electrochemical applications like redox flow batteries, water electrolysis, and many moreDetailed treatment of specially tailored cationic groups such as quaternary ammonium and guanidiniumExpert advice on efficient fabrication and electrode assembly Alkaline Anion Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cells is ideal for electrochemists, materials scientists, polymer chemists, electrical engineers, and anyone working in power technology or related fields.