Algal biorefineries and the circular bioeconomy. Volume I, Algal products and processes

"Algae are mysterious and fascinating organisms that hold great potential for discovery and biotechnology." ―Dr. Thierry Tonon, Department of Biology, University of York "Science is a beautiful gift to humanity; we should not distort it." ―A.P.J. Abdul Kalam In this book, we emphasize the importance of algal biotechnology as a sustainable platform to replace the conventional fossil-based economy. With this focus, Volume 2 summarizes the up-to-date literature and knowledge and discusses the advances in algal cultivation, genetic improvement, wastewater treatment, resource recovery, commercial operation, and technoeconomic analysis of algal biotechnology. FEATURES Discusses in detail recent developments in algae cultivation and biomass harvesting Provides an overview of genetic engineering and algal-bacteria consortia to improve productivity Presents applications of algae in the area of wastewater treatment and resource recovery Provides case studies and technoeconomic analysis to understand the algal biorefinery Shashi Kant Bhatia, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Biological Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea. Sanjeet Mehariya, PhD, is a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden. Obulisamy Parthiba Karthikeyan, PhD, is a Research Scientist and Lecturer (Adjunct) in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Rapid City, South Dakota, USA. Cover Half Title Title Page Copyright Page Contents Preface Acknowledgments Editors Contributors 1. Marine Macroalgal Biorefinery: Recent Developments and Future Perspectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Green Macroalgae 1.2.1 Advanced Green Macroalgae Cultivation Strategies to Uplift the Biorefinery System 1.2.2 Essential Components in Green Macroalgae Important for Sequential Biorefinery Processes 1.2.3 Green Macroalgae Biorefinery Protocol with the Advanced Extraction Process 1.2.4 Potential Primary Products Obtained during the Biorefinery Process 1.2.5 Potential Secondary Products Obtained during the Biorefinery Process 1.2.5.1 Bioethanol 1.2.5.2 Biohydrogen 1.2.5.3 Biogas 1.2.5.4 Biodiesel 1.2.5.5 Other Miscellaneous Applications 1.3 Red Macroalgae 1.3.1 Cultivation of Red Macroalgae for a Biorefinery Approach 1.3.2 Bioactive Components of Red Macroalgae for a Biorefinery Approach 1.3.3 Primary Products Obtained during the Biorefinery Process 1.3.4 Secondary Products Obtained during the Biorefinery Process 1.3.4.1 Bioethanol 1.3.4.2 Biodiesel 1.3.4.3 Biohydrogen and Biogas 1.3.4.4 Other Miscellaneous Products 1.4 Brown Macroalgae 1.4.1 Cultivation of Brown Macroalgae for a Biorefinery Approach 1.4.2 Bioactive Components of Brown Macroalgae for a Biorefinery Approach 1.4.3 Primary Products Obtained during Biorefinery Process 1.4.4 Secondary Products Obtained during the Biorefinery Process 1.4.4.1 Biogas 1.4.4.2 Bioethanol 1.4.4.3 Biohydrogen and Biomethane 1.4.4.4 Other Miscellaneous Applications 1.5 Future Perspectives 1.6 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 2. Valorization of Algal Spent Biomass into Valuable Biochemicals and Energy Resource 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Algae: The Primary Producer 2.3 Concept of Biorefinery 2.4 Algal Biorefinery Approach 2.5 Metabolite Profiling of Algae 2.6 Spent Biomass 2.7 Green Solvent-Based Extraction 2.8 Valorization of Lipid-Extracted Residual Biomass for Biochemicals 2.8.1 Proteins 2.8.2 Polysaccharides 2.8.3 Carotenoids 2.8.4 Nutraceuticals 2.8.5 Antimicrobial Compounds 2.8.6 Antioxidant Compounds 2.9 Valorization of Lipid-Extracted Residual Biomass for Energy Resources 2.9.1 Biodiesel 2.9.2 Bioethanol 2.9.3 Bio-oil 2.9.4 Biochar 2.9.5 Biogas 2.9.6 Biomethane 2.9.7 Syngas 2.9.8 Biohydrogen 2.9.9 Feed Supplement 2.9.10 Fertilizer 2.9.11 Lactic Acid 2.10 Valorization of Agar-Extracted Residual Biomass 2.10.1 Bioactive Compounds 2.10.2 Fatty Acids 2.10.3 Bio-ethanol 2.10.4 Paper Products 2.10.5 Cellulose Nanocrystals 2.11 Future Research Directions 2.12 Conclusion Acknowledgments References 3. Algal Role in Microbial Fuel Cells 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Algae and their Biomass 3.3 Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) 3.3.1 Types of Electrode Materials 3.3.2 Operational Conditions 3.3.3 Factors Affecting MFCs' Performance 3.4 Algae Used as Culture and Substrate in Microbial Fuel Cell 3.4.1 Different Algal Substrates as Autotrophic Mode MFC 3.4.2 Different Algal Substrates as Heterotrophic Mode MFC 3.4.3 Algal Role in Microbial Fuel Cell 3.5 Applications of Algal MFC 3.5.1 Bioelectricity Generation 3.5.2 Wastewater Treatment 3.5.3 Biohydrogen Generation 3.5.4 Robots 3.5.5 Biosensors 3.6 Challenges and Prospects of Algal MFCs 3.7 Conclusion and Outlook References 4. Potential of Microalgae for Protein Production 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Effect of Microalgae Culture in Protein Production 4.2.1 Light 4.2.2 Temperature 4.2.3 pH 4.2.4 Salinity 4.2.5 Nutrients 4.2.5.1 Carbon 4.2.5.2 Nitrogen 4.3 Protein Extraction Methods: Effect of Different Methods and Operational Parameters on Extraction Yields and Protein Recovery 4.3.1 Physical Methods 4.3.1.1 Bead Milling 4.3.1.2 High Pressure Homogenization 4.3.1.3 Ultrasonication 4.3.1.4 Electric Field 4.3.1.5 Microwave 4.3.2 Chemical Methods 4.3.2.1 Acid and Alkaline Treatment 4.3.2.2 Oxidative Treatment 4.3.3 Biological Methods 4.3.3.1 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 4.3.4 Novel Methods 4.3.4.1 Ionic Liquids 4.3.4.2 Osmotic Shock 4.4 Protein Separation Methods 4.4.1 Three-Phase Partitioning 4.4.2 Membrane Technology 4.4.3 Protein Dispersion - pH Shift and Salting Out 4.4.4 Electrophoresis 4.4.5 Column Chromatography 4.4.5.1 Size Exclusion (SEC) 4.4.5.2 Ion Exchange (IEC) 4.4.5.3 Affinity Chromatography (AC) 4.4.5.4 Hydrophobic Interactions (HIC) 4.4.5.5 Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) 4.5 Potential Application of Proteins from Microalgae 4.5.1 Microalgae Proteins in Feeding and Nutrition 4.5.1.1 Microalgae Proteins for Humans 4.5.1.2 Microalgae Proteins as Animal Feed 4.5.2 Microalgae Proteins as Nutraceuticals 4.5.3 Other Industrial Applications of Microalgae Proteins 4.6 Challenges in the Production of Microalgae Proteins 4.7 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 5. Microalgae for Pigments and Cosmetics 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Pigments in Microalgae 5.2.1 Chlorophylls 5.2.2 Carotenoids 5.2.3 Phycobiliproteins 5.3 Biosynthesis 5.4 Strategies to Enhance the Production of Pigments 5.4.1 Nutrimental, Physical, and Culture Regime 5.4.2 Genetic and Metabolic Engineering 5.5 Extraction, Separation, and Purification 5.6 Industrial Production 5.6.1 Microalgae Cultivation Systems 5.6.2 Harvesting and Biomass Pre-Processing 5.6.3 Extraction/Separation and Purification Processes 5.7 Importance and Commercial Applications of Microalgae Pigments 5.7.1 Nutraceutical and Pharmaceutical Uses 5.7.1.1 Cosmetics and Cosmeceutical Use 5.8 Uses of Microalgal Pigments Boosting Bioeconomy and Circular Economy 5.9 Conclusions Acknowledgments References 6. Microalgae for Animal and Fish Feed 6.1 Introduction: Background and Driving Forces 6.2 Definition of Microalgae 6.3 Microalgal Biochemical and Nutritional Value 6.3.1 Proteins 6.3.2 Lipids 6.3.3 Carbohydrates 6.3.4 Pigments 6.3.5 Vitamins 6.4 Industrial Applications of Microalgae in the Functional Aquafeed Industry 6.5 Industrial Applications of Microalgae in the Functional Terrestrial Feed Industry 6.6 Commercialized Formulated Aqua and Terrestrial Feed 6.7 Challenges and Future Perspectives 6.8 Summary References 7. Algal-Sourced Biostimulants and Biofertilizer for Sustainable Agriculture and Soil Enrichment: Algae for Fertilizers and Soil Conditioners 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Microalgae Production Costs 7.3 Difficulties as GHG Emissions and Resources Utilization 7.4 Algal Fertilizer Benefits 7.4.1 N and P Demand 7.5 Soil Quality Improvements 7.6 Details about Algal Bacterial Interactions in Soil 7.6.1 Mutualism 7.6.2 Commensalism 7.6.3 Parasitism 7.7 Quoram Sensing - A Molecular Approach to Understand Plant-Algae Interaction 7.7.1 Quorum Sensing 7.7.2 Plant-Algae Interaction 7.8 Benefits and Detrimental Effects as Soil Conditioner: As Microbial Inoculant to the Soil - Alter the Native Microbiome/Affect the PGPR - MORE of Antagonism Synergism 7.8.1 Carbon Fixation in Soil 7.8.2 Nutrient Mobilization 7.9 Conclusion and Future Directions 7.9.1 A Few Future Directions References 8. Recent Trends in Microalgal Refinery for Sustainable Biopolymer Production 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Parameters Affecting Microalgae Biomass Cultivation 8.2.1 Temperature 8.2.2 pH 8.2.3 Nutrients 8.2.4 CO2 Aeration in Photoautotrophic Microalgae 8.3 Biopolymer Production from Microalgae Biomass 8.3.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 8.3.2 Polylactic Acid or Polylactide (PLA) 8.3.3 Polysaccharides 8.3.4 Protein 8.4 Biopolymer's Extraction Technologies 8.4.1 Pretreatment/Cell Wall Disruption 8.4.2 Extraction Technology 8.4.2.1 Solvent Extractions 8.4.2.2 Supercritical Fluids Extraction 8.4.2.3 Subcritical Fluid Extraction 8.5 Future Prospects and Research Needs 8.6 Conclusions Acknowledgment References 9. Algae as a Source of Polysaccharides and Potential Applications 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Source and Chemical Structure of Macroalgal Polysaccharides 9.2.1 Alginate 9.2.1.1 Source 9.2.1.2 Structure 9.2.2 Carrageenans 9.2.2.1 Source 9.2.2.2 Structure 9.2.3 Chitin and Chitosan 9.2.3.1 Source 9.2.3.2 Structure 9.2.4 Fucoidans 9.2.4.1 Source 9.2.4.2 Structure 9.2.5 Laminarin 9.2.5.1 Source 9.2.5.2 Structure 9.2.6 Agar 9.2.6.1 Source 9.2.6.2 Structure 9.2.7 Ulvan 9.2.7.1 Source 9.2.7.2 Structure 9.3 Microalgal Polysaccharides 9.4 Extraction and Purification of Polysaccharides 9.5 Potential Applications of Algal Polysaccharides 9.5.1 Biological Activity of Algal Polysaccharides for Pharmaceutical Applications 9.5.1.1 Anti-inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Activities 9.5.1.2 Antioxidant Activity 9.5.1.3 Anticancer and Antitumor Activities 9.5.1.4 Antiviral Activity 9.5.1.5 Antibacterial Activity 9.5.1.6 Anticoagulant and Antithrombotic Activities 9.5.1.7 Antilipidemic and Antihepatotoxic Activities 9.5.1.8 Neuroprotective Activity 9.5.2 Cosmetic Applications 9.5.3 Biomedical Applications 9.5.4 Applications in Food Biotechnology 9.5.5 Applications in Agriculture 9.5.6 Applications in Bioenergy 9.6 Future Prospects 9.7 Conclusion References 10. Algae as Food and Nutraceuticals 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Microalgal Diversity and Variability 10.3 Digestion and Bioavailability 10.4 Microalgae: Uses as Nutraceuticals and Food 10.4.1 Why Should Microalgae Be Promoted as a Nutraceutical? 10.5 Algal Carbohydrates and Polysaccharides 10.5.1 Ulvan 10.5.2 Fucoidan 10.5.3 Alginates 10.5.4 Carrageenan 10.5.5 Laminarin 10.5.6 Agar 10.5.7 Nutraceutical Advantages of Seaweed Polysaccharides 10.6 Algal Lipids, Fatty Acids, and Sterols 10.7 Algal Proteins, Peptides, and Amino Acids 10.7.1 Factors Affecting Amino Acid and Protein Synthesis in Algae 10.7.2 The Amino Acid Profile of Seaweed 10.8 Vitamins 10.8.1 Composition of Vitamins in Seaweed 10.8.2 Factors Influencing Seaweed Vitamins 10.9 Phlorotannin 10.10 Pigments and Minor Compounds in Algae 10.10.1 Chlorophylls 10.10.2 Carotenoids 10.10.3 Beta-carotene 10.10.4 Fucoxanthin 10.10.5 Phycobiliproteins 10.11 Algal Antioxidants 10.12 Design of Healthier Foods and Beverages Containing Whole Algae 10.12.1 Use of Algal Components in Foods and Beverages as Healthy Ingredients 10.12.2 Nutritional Quality Standard, Regulations, and Challenges for Algal Products 10.13 Prebiotic and Probiotic Use of Algae and Algae-Supplemented Products 10.14 Future Perspectives of Algal Derived Metabolites 10.15 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 11. Cyanobacterial Phycobiliproteins - Biochemical Strategies to Improve the Production and Its Bio Application 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Light-Harvesting Bio-molecule - Phycobiliproteins 11.2.1 Types of Phycobiliproteins (PBPs) 11.2.2 Structure of Phycobiliproteins 11.2.2.1 C-Phycoerythrin (CPE) 11.2.2.2 C-Phycocyanin (CPC) 11.2.2.3 Allophycocyanin (APC) 11.2.3 Bilin and Linker Polypeptide 11.3 Role of Different Abiotic Stress Conditions in the Production of Light-Harvesting Biomolecules 11.3.1 Production of PBPs 11.3.2 Factors Affecting Accumulation of Phycobiliproteins in Cyanobacteria 11.3.2.1 Effect of Light Stress 11.3.2.2 Effect of Temperature Stress 11.3.2.3 Effect of Nutrient Accessibility 11.4 Downstream Processing for Light-Harvesting Biomolecules 11.4.1 Extraction of PBPs 11.4.1.1 Ultrasonication 11.4.1.2 Freezing-Thawing 11.4.1.3 Osmotic Shock 11.4.1.4 Biological and Chemical Extraction 11.5 Purification of PBPs 11.5.1 Different Purification Methods 11.4.2.2 Stability of Phycobiliproteins 11.5 Biotechnological Importance 11.5.1 Antioxidant Capacity of Phycobiliproteins 11.5.2 Anti-Tumor Activity of Phycobiliproteins 11.5.3 Phycobiliproteins as Neuroprotective Agents 11.5.4 Phycobiliproteins as Fluorescent Probe 11.5.5 Phycobiliproteins as Food Colorants 11.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects Acknowledgments References Index In this book, we emphasize the importance of algal biotechnology as a sustainable platform to replace the conventional fossil-based economy. With this focus, Volume 2 summarizes the up-to-date literature and knowledge and discusses the advances in algal cultivation, genetic improvement, wastewater treatment, resource recovery, commercial operation, and technoeconomic analysis of algal biotechnology. FEATURES Discusses in detail recent developments in algae cultivation and biomass harvesting Provides an overview of genetic engineering and algal-bacteria consortia to improve productivity Presents applications of algae in the area of wastewater treatment and resource recovery Provides case studies and technoeconomic analysis to understand the algal biorefinery Shashi Kant Bhatia, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Biological Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea. Sanjeet Mehariya, PhD, is a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Department of Chemistry, Ume©Æ University, Ume©Æ, Sweden. Obulisamy Parthiba Karthikeyan, PhD, is a Research Scientist and Lecturer (Adjunct) in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, South Dakota School of Mines and Technology, Rapid City, South Dakota, USA "This book offers complete coverage of microalgae refineries, including biology, production techniques, biotechnological applications, economic perspectives of applications, and environmental effects of microalgae cultivation. It also summarizes the strategies and future perspectives of microalgal refineries with circular bioeconomy concepts"-- Provided by publisher