اسکندریه و قمران: بازگشت به آغاز

This year, 2017, marks 70 years since the discovery of the famous Dead Sea Scrolls at Khirbet Qumran by the Dead Sea in 1947. The Dead Sea Scrolls are one of the most well-known archaeological discoveries of the 20th century. This book addresses the proto-history and the roots of the Qumran community and of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the light of contemporary scholarship in Alexandria, Egypt. Alexandria, as the centre for Hellenistic Jews and the location of the Library of Alexandria, forms a key to understanding the theme of the book. The relationship of this context to the thoughts of the Essenes, the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria, the Jewish Therapeutae of Egypt living in the neighbourhood of Alexandria and the Pythagoreans are especially studied in this work. Historical sources (both Jewish and Classical authors) and archaeological evidence are taken into account in the wider Graeco-Roman context. The connection between the Jewish Therapeutae in the Lake Mareotis region and the Palestinian Essenes is explained by the ‘Jewish Pythagoras’ based on the idea that the movements share the same philosophical tradition based on Judaism and Pythagoreanism. The prototypes of the Dead Sea Scrolls are explained in their Egyptian context, in association with the Library of Alexandria, the Egyptian temple manuals, and the formation of libraries in the Hellenistic period including that of Qumran. About the Author: Dr Kenneth Silver is a historian and professional archaeologist, who has lived and worked for decades in the Near East. He is a specialist in Hellenistic and Roman archaeology, history and numismatics. He has worked with archaeological material in Israel, Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Turkey. He has previously published a number of scientific articles and monographs in this field. His current research interests include the study of early Jewish-Christian relations and the history of early Christianity. Presently he is the director of a survey and mapping project in Northern Mesopotamia studying the border zone between the late Roman/ Byzantine Empire and Persia. Cover 1 Copyright Information 2 Dedication and Inscription 3 Contents 5 List of Figures 10 Acknowledgements 15 Abbreviations and Periodicals 16 Abbreviations of common sources: 17 General abbreviations: 17 Abbreviations of Biblical books, if such are used: 18 Preface and Introduction 19 I Alexandria and Jewish Philosophies 29 1.1. Alexandria and Egypt 29 1.2. Philo of Alexandria: the Therapeutae and the Essenes 30 1.3. Marea and the Lake Mareotis (Lake Maryut) near Alexandria 53 History of research 53 Results of recent archaeological surveys and mapping, and environmental studies 55 The settlements and housing in the Mareotis 62 Trade and commerce in the Lake Mareotis area – the economic context 68 The importance of the Lake Mareotis region in relation to Alexandria 70 1.4. The Library of Alexandria, and the tradition of libraries in the ancient world 71 1.4.1. The Library of Alexandria 71 The birth of private and public libraries 74 What was a library? 76 1.4.2. The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Library of Qumran 84 The physical settings of the libraries and the Qumran library 84 Theories and explanations about Qumran 86 Acquisition policy and birth of the Qumran library 90 Purchasing 90 Copying 91 Copying by a slave 91 Confiscating documents 92 Inheritance, gifts and borrowing 92 Rewritten Pentateuch as a source to the origin 93 The size of the Qumran library 93 Fig. 1 A Map of Egypt, Qumran and the region 52 Fig. 1b. Map of the Mareotis area after Cosson 1935. 54 Figure 2a Close-up of the Temple of Taposiris. 3 D model. Assumed view of the temple as seen from the east. 56 Figure 2b The Temple of Taposiris, and the Tower. 3 D model. Assumed view as seen from the north-east. 56 Figure 2c The Temple of Taposiris. 3 D model. Assumed view of the temple as seen from the west. 57 Figure 2d The Map of Alexandria in the classical period and in 1798. The first layer (shown in red) is the Roman Alexandria as done by Mahmoud Pasha El-Falaki in 1866, defining the old grid system and the urban fabric of the city. It highlights also the l 72 Figure 2e The Pharos. 3 D models of the lighthouse of Alexandria, and a visualization of the interior architectural structures and the section of the building. Considered later one of the ‘Seven Wonders of the World’. The Lighthouse was constructed in 28 72 Figure 3a 3 D model of the Library of Celcus of Ephesus. Image © 2017 Ahmet Denker. The façade of the building. The library was constructed in the 2nd century A.D. 81 Figure 3b 3 D model of the Library of Celcus of Ephesus, and a street view with poses. Image © 2017 Ahmet Denker. 81 Figure 3c Virtual reconstruction of the Villa of Papyri and its famous library in Herculaneum. Image © 2015 Mantha Zarmakoupi. Modeling undertaken at the Experiental Technologies Center, University of California, Los Angeles, with the support of the Frie 82 Figure 3d The Qumran caves where ancient manuscripts have been discovered 83 II Pythagorean Philosophy 97 2.1. Pythagorean philosophy in a nutshell 97 2.2. The Pythagorean view of the world 110 2.3. Pythagorean grades of membership 113 2.4. The Pythagorean oath and the meaning of oaths 121 2.5. Pythagorean primary sources and information about the principle of including and excluding sacred dimensions 122 2.6. Division of the Pythagorean world-view into eleven so-called Tetraktys 124 Figure 4 The Tetraktys Adapted from a mathematical figure available at http://www.storyofmathematics.com/greek_pythagoras.html 106 Fig. 5. The suggested grades in Pythagorean philosophy 117 III Background to the Organisation of the Qumran-Essene Community 127 3.1. Guilds and associations 127 3.2. The origin of the names of the Qumran community 127 Yahad 129 Serekh 131 Rabim 132 3.3. Councils and hierarchy 133 3.4. Literary traditions and the composition of the Qumran library 136 IV Qumran and the Pythagorean Philosophy: 142 The Eleven Pythagorean Tetraktys in Comparison with the DSS 142 4.1. The first Tetraktys: the ‘Fours’- the four grades of membership at Qumran 142 4.2. The first Tetraktys: the ‘Fours’- the four grades of membership in the fourfold initiation process at Qumran 145 4.3. The first Tetraktys: the ‘Fours’- the Pythagorean oath and the oath of the initiants at Qumran 149 4.4. The first Tetraktys: the ‘Tens’ – the units of ten in the Qumran community 151 4.5. The first Tetraktys: the ‘Thirteen’ – the units of thirteen at Qumran 153 The first Tetraktys 153 The second Tetraktys 156 The third Tetraktys 156 4.6. The fourth Tetraktys - the ‘Fours’ – the simple bodies of fire, air, water and earth 157 4.7. The fifth Tetraktys – the figures of the simple bodies 158 4.8. The sixth Tetraktys - the vegetative life 158 4.8.1. Communal life and sharing of property 159 4.8.2. Distribution of property and charity work 163 4.8.3. Asceticism and Pythagorean virtues 164 4.8.3.1. Asceticism: nutriment, food and drink 165 4.8.3.2. Asceticism: physical labour and exercise 175 Daily program in general 175 Agriculture and physical labour - the economic function of the settlements 182 Handicrafts and industry 188 4.8.3.3. Asceticism and cosmic dualism 189 Unity and plurality/pluralism 191 Truth and falsehood/injustice/error 193 Light and darkness 197 Good/goodness and bad/evil 208 Purity and impurity 211 Speech and silence 217 Rest and motion 222 Straight and crooked 225 Right and left 227 Male and female 229 Holy and unholy 234 Love and hatred 236 Peace (non-violence) and war (violence) 241 Health and sickness­ (healing) 248 Angels and demons 251 4.8.4. Asceticism: reading, meditation and study 258 4.8.5. Asceticism: body, soul and health 271 4.8.6. Asceticism: trials of the most varied nature, including punishments and restraints by fire and sword, for innate temperance, or ineradicable desire for possession 274 4.8.7. Asceticism: suppression of certain features or the so-called ‘peculiarities’ in the Qumran-Essene community: spitting, laughing, belching, foolish talk, farting or being excessively demonstrative 277 Falling asleep 279 Spilling of oil 279 The sun vs. discharge of the natural excrements 280 White raiment 283 Ritual cleanness and purificatory baths 284 Slavery and slaves 292 Avoidance of public roads and cities 295 4.8.8. Asceticism: cultivate of contempt to wealth and fame 296 4.8.9. Asceticism: sexual relations, purity and impurity and other dualistic characteristics 299 4.9. The seventh Tetraktys – the communities 305 4.10. The eight Tetraktys – the powers of judgement 311 4.11. The ninth Tetraktys – the living things 316 4.12. The tenth Tetraktys – the seasons of the year 323 4.13. The eleventh Tetraktys – the ages of man 325 The ‘age of the infancy’ 328 The ‘age of man’ 329 The ‘age of the lad’ 329 The ‘age of old man’ 330 Figure 6 The four memberships grades at Qumran, according to the Qumran texts. Adapted from a mathematical figure available at http://www.storyofmathematics.com/greek_pythagoras.html 143 Figure 7 4Q186, division of light and darkness as markers of the quality of a person. Adapted after F. Schmidt. 201 Figure 8 Plato’s Lambda 202 V Daily Life and Religion among the Qumran-Essenes 331 5.1. Religious theology and philosophy 331 5.2. The mysteries and initiations 335 5.3. Ethnicity, social classes, and myths 338 5.4. The solar-astral mystery religion 344 5.4.1. The dualistic system of the Qumran-Essenes 352 5.4.2. The belief in fate and predestination 358 5.4.3. Metempsychosis: transmigration and immortality of the soul 362 5.5. Eschatological expectations of the community 368 5.6. Morals, ethics and penal code and the ‘Qumran spirit’ 374 Figure 9a The four membership grades in the Qumran-Essene community, according to the DSS 339 Figure 9b The Tomb of Jason 351 Plate 1a Close-up of section of the Habakkuk Commentary. The so-called Dead Sea Scrolls. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C., USA. Reproduction Number: LC-DIG-matpc-22898. Part of G. Eric and Edith Matson Photograph Colle 379 Plate 1b Close-up of section of the War of the Sons of Light against the Sons of Darkness. The so-called Dead Sea Scrolls. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C., USA. Reproduction Number: LC-DIG-matpc-22899. Part of G. Eric 379 VI The Qumran Sundial and Ancient Solar Thinking 380 6.1. Introduction 380 M. Lönnqvist, K. Lönnqvist, and R. Anttila 380 6.2. A new theory emerged 381 6.3. The archaeological context of the astronomical device in Locus 45 382 6.4. The description of the Qumran astronomical device 383 6.5. The identification of the Qumran astronomical device 389 6.6. The function and use of the Qumran astronomical device 391 6.7. A portable device 397 6.8. Re-thinking the Qumran sundial 400 6.9. The application of the knowledge of astronomy at Qumran and the origin of the sundial 403 6.10. The sundial and the 364-day solar calendar at Qumran 406 Astronomical Appendix: Some aspects of the Qumran Solar Disk. 411 Figure 10a The Qumran sundial (Courtesy: The Israel Museum, Jerusalem) 384 Figure 10c The Qumran sundial reconstruction equinox evening (Courtesy: The Israel Museum, Jerusalem) 384 Figure 10d The Qumran sundial reconstruction (Unknown copyright) 384 Fig. 11. The Qumran sundial and Alexandria. Courtesy: Minna Lönnqvist 386 Figure 12a The Qumran Greek phi (Φ) 389 Figure 12b The Qumran sundial: the ayin (ע) 389 Fig. 13. The arc of the sun in the eastern horizon at Qumran in degrees. Courtesy: R. Anttila. 398 Fig. 14. The azimuths of the sun at the Qumran horizon at Qumran in degrees. Source: Lönnqvist and Lönnqvist 2002. 400 VII Back to the Beginning 412 7.1. The proto-history of the Qumran-Essene faction 412 7.2. The Oniads and the Teacher of Righteousness 430 7.3. The Hellenizing policies of Jason the High Priest and the philosophical school 432 7.4. Sadducees, Pharisees or what? 441 High Priest 442 Aristocrat and Sadducee 443 Ancestry, genealogy, background, organisation of the community, and the hierarchy 445 Penal code 445 Religion and philosophy 445 Written Torah 445 Dualism 446 God and Fate 446 Fate and predestination 447 Free will and Fate 448 The immortality and transmigration of the soul 449 Angelology and spirits 453 7.5. The architecture and the archaeological finds at Khirbet Qumran 456 J.-B. Humbert: Graeco-Roman central planning 456 J. Magness: An Essene and Jewish sectarian site 457 P. Donceel-Voute and R. Donceel: a well-appointed villa with activities 457 M. Lönnqvist and K. Lönnqvist: an astroarchaeological settlement plan and a religion and philosophy based on Pythagoreanism 458 Y. Hirschfeld: fortified manor house and a villa rustica 458 The distribution of artefacts, architectural remains and spaces 461 7.6. The iconography and architecture of the sacred spaces at the Qumran settlement in the light of Pythagorean mathematics 479 7.7. The archaeological finds from Qumran: pottery, coins, oil lamps and glassware and their spatial distribution 484 The chronology of the Qumran settlement 484 Oil lamps 492 Wheel-made oil lamp types: 496 Mould-made oil lamp types: 497 The Qumran glass objects 512 Spatial distribution of the glass artefacts 515 Chronology of the glass artefacts 517 Geographical parallels to the glass artefacts 517 Raw material and trace elements of glass 518 Figure 15b Vignette from Papyrus Salt 825 showing ‘The house of life’. Source: Gardiner 1938, in public domain. 418 Figure 16a A linen textile from Qumran Cave 1 with a drawing in indigo blue Source: after Crowfoot 1955. 425 Figure 16b Plan of the reconstruction of the ideal Temple of the Qumran-Essenes, according to the Temple Scroll Source: after Yadin 1985. 425 Figure 17 Central part of linen textile coloured with indigo blue from Cave 1. Courtesy: National Archaeological Museum, Amman. Photo: Kenneth Silver. 426 Figure 18 The development and history of the Qumran-Essene community, adopted from a template by Mota 2013 based on Plato. Kenneth Silver 433 Figure 19a The layout of Khirbet Qumran and the main architectural features. Base map by de Vaux 1973. Supplemented by the new archaeological information from research by Lönnqvist and Lönnqvist 2002 and 2006, Magen and Peleg 2006, Humbert 2003 and 2006. 462 Reproduction Number: LC-DIG-matpc-22895. Part of G. Eric and Edith Matson Photograph Collection. Taken between 1947-1961. 463 Figure 19b Khirbet Qumran and the main settlement, prior to the excavations and the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls. General view from the west. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C., USA. Reproduction Number: LC-DIG-matp 463 Figure 19c Khirbet Qumran and the main settlement. General view from the south-east. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C., USA. 463 Figure 19d Khirbet Qumran and Cave 4, the Library. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C., USA. Reproduction Number: LC-DIG-matpc-13010. Part of G. Eric and Edith Matson Photograph Collection. Taken apparently before 1947. 464 Figure 19e The Qumran scroll caves. View to the Dead Sea. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C., USA. Reproduction Number: LC-DIG-matpc-22897. Part of G. Eric and Edith Matson Photograph Collection. Taken between 1947-1961. 465 Figure 19f Cape Ras Feshkhas. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C., USA. Reproduction Number: LC-DIG-matpc-01742. Part of G. Eric and Edith Matson Photograph Collection. Taken approximately 1900-1920. 465 Figure 20A Main square building at Khirbet Qumran, restoration of spaces, Map to N. Building ca. 20° E of N, after Humbert 2003, Fig. 1 466 Figure 21A Main square building at Khirbet Qumran, restoration of spaces, Building to N, After Humbert 2003, Fig. 1 466 Figure 21B The Strategeion or Palace of the Stratege of Dura Europos, building to N, after Leriche 1997 466 Figure 22a Palace of Vergina, Macedonia, ca. 330–320 bc After Walter-Karydi 1998. 470 Figure 22b Palace of Vergina Macedonia, reconstruction. After Walter-Karydi 1998. 470 Figure 23 Plan of dining room, Perachora, Greece. Late classical/early Hellenistic period. After Tomlinson 1989. 471 Figure 24 Olynthos, reconstruction of a house courtyard, view from the south. After: Walter-Karydi 1998. 475 Figure 25 Athens, Agora, South Stoa I, banquet room. Late 5th century bc After Walter-Karydi 1998. 477 Figure 26 ‘Scribal benches’ from Qumran. Courtesy: National Archaeological Museum, Amman. Photo: Kenneth Silver. 478 Figure 27 Locus 77 arranged according to geometric principles of squares/cubes and triangles. Drawing: Kenneth Silver 2016 480 Figure 28 The Pantheon, Rome. Photo: Kenneth Silver 2016 482 Figure 29 Sacred proportions of the main building at Khirbet Qumran. Drawing after Humbert 2003 482 Figure 30 Distribution of Herodian oil lamps at Qumran, according to information provided by publication of R. Donceel. Information courtesy: R. Donceel. Redrawn and digitized by Kenneth Silver. Basemap, courtesy: Lönnqvist and Lönnqvist 2002 (J.-B. Humb 500 Figure 31 Distribution of Hellenistic and other oil lamps at Qumran, according to information provided by publication of R. Donceel. Information courtesy: R. Donceel. Redrawn and digitized: Kenneth Silver. Basemap, courtesy: Lönnqvist and Lönnqvist 2002 501 Figure 32 The architecture and the spatial distribution of the archaeological finds at Khirbet Qumran. Supplemented by the new archaeological information from Lönnqvist and Lönnqvist 2002, 2006, and 2015, Magen and Peleg 2006, Humbert 2003 and 2006, and 507 VIII Summary 520 Sources and Bibliography, Glossary and Indices 532 Sources and Bibliography 532 Alexandria,Qumran,Qumran-Essenes,Lake Mareotis,Pythagoras,Philosophy,Small Finds,Temples,Jews