Ajanta's Evolution: From Savakayana to Bodhisatvayana Amid Hunnic Turmoil

Ajanta's Evolution: From Savakayana to Bodhisatvayana amid Hunnic Turmoil offers a new scholarly exploration of the rock-cut caves, their sculpture and paintings, meticulously tracing the rise, transformation, and legacy of these architectural marvels. The book takes an interdisciplinary approach, combining elements of historical, archaeological, artistic and Buddhist studies. Part I treats the grand epoch of Sravakayana, discussing archaeological contexts, cave classification methodologies, and the emergence of rock-cut monasteries under the influence of King Hari Sena. Against the backdrop of Hunnic upheaval and societal transformations, Part II delves into the Bodhisatvayana era, chronicling the impact of Alchon or Alkhan Hun raids, migrations, and the evolution of the rock-cut monuments. The principle aim is to contextualize the site of Ajanta within a new historical setting. It seeks to address the paradox of how the Early Alchon or Alkhan Hunnic invasions, despite causing significant challenges to the development of the fifth-century cave temples, also provided opportunities for innovation. Another noteworthy aspect is the introduction of a novel taxonomical approach to the monuments. A revised chart for the taxonomy and typological classification of Buddhist rock-cut monuments is presented, mapping the evolutionary trajectory of architectural development over time. Cover Title Page Copyright Page Contents Page Preface Acknowledgements List of Abbreviations Introduction: Basic Questions A. Site of Ajanta B. Architecture C. Paintings D. Iconography E. Recession and Hiatus F. Abandonment G. Political Background H. Approach, Scope, and Limitations of Study Part I: Ajanta During Sāvakayāna, from Late Third Century bc to Circa ad 467 1. Archaeological Context A. Location B. Purpose C. Historical Context and Periodisation D. Sāvakayāna 2. Classification A. Classification in Biology Ranks Taxonomy Process B. Classification of Bauddha Rock-Cut Architecture in India Novel Classification Novel Nomenclature System E. ‘Mono-Functional’ Architecture Type C: Cetiya/Thūpa/Stupa: From Exterior to Interior Spaces Type L: Leṇa (Monastic Cell): From Constructed to Rock-Cut Type M: Maṭapa (Hall/Pavilion): Transitioning from Constructed to Rock-Cut F. Naval Architecture (Type NA) Wooden Prototype for Vaulted & Apsidal Rock-Cut Monuments? Naval Architecture G. ‘Duo-Functional’ Architecture Type LC: Leṇa-Cetiyaghara for Worship & Dwelling Type MC1: Mono- to Duo-Functional Architecture Type MC: Maṭapa-Cetiyaghara for Worship & Assembly/Congregation Type LM: Leṇa-Maṭapa for Assembly/Congregation & Dwelling H. ‘Tri-Functional’ Architecture 3. Caves of Period I, Late 3rd Century BC to 1st Century AD A. Cave 31/26A B. Cave 30/15A C. Cave 13 D. Cave 10 Phase I: Architecture (2nd Century bc) Phase II: ‘Gharamukha’ and Paintings (‘Jātaka Type,’ 1st c. bc – 1st c. ad) Phase III: ‘Intrusive’ Paintings and Sculptures (Circa ad 478–480) E. Cave 12 F. Cave 9 Phase I: Architecture and Five ‘Jātaka Type’ Paintings (1st c. bc–1st c. ad) Phase II: Two ‘Avadāna Type’ Paintings (Circa ad 477) Phase III: ‘Intrusive’ Paintings & Sculptures (Circa ad 478–480) 4. Hiatus I and Beginning of Hunnic Invasions, 2nd c. AD to Mid-Fifth c. AD A. Alkhan Huns B. Invasion I and Invasion II in circa 447 & 455: Conquest of Indus Valley Post-Gandhāra Expulsion C. GVAPT: Alliance of Indian Rulers to Stop ‘Hūṇas’/ ‘Mlecchas’ D. Bauddha Exodus I from Persia, Bactria, and Greater Gandhāra (Circa 447 & 455) E. Image Cult in Western & Middle India Vadnagar Sanchi Taranga 5. King Hari Ṣeṇa and Growth of Rock-Cut Monasteries in Period II, Circa AD 460-477 A. Rise of Vākāṭaka Empire B. Period II of Rock-Cut Architecture, Circa ad 460–467/468 C. Revival of Duo-Functional Architecture D. Planning of New Monuments at Ajanta: Mono-Functional and Duo-Functional Architecture E. Patronage F. Revival of Old Paradigms: Sāvakayāna & Cetiya Cult G. Ajanta Narrative Murals: Indeterminable Textual Origins Crucial Insights and Comparative Analysis Inference of Lost Sources and the Proximate Nature of Understanding Schlingloff’s Contribution: A Beacon in Murky Waters Towards a Deeper Understanding 6. Hunnic Upheaval, Refugee Crisis, and Spread of Ideas, Circa AD 465–468 A. Hephthalites Expel Alkhans from Greater Gandhāra, etc. B. ‘Bauddha Exodus II’ from Indo-Persian and Central Asian Sphere, Circa ad 465–467 C. Influx of Bauddha Refugees in Middle India and Deccan D. Transition from ‘Duo-Functional’ to ‘Tri-Functional’ Architecture E. Renewed Hunnic Menace and Varāhadeva’s Predicament, Circa Early 468 F. ‘Bauddha Exodus III:’ Sarvāstivādins from Greater Gandhāra Cultural Area Part II: Ajanta During Bodhisatvayāna, from Circa ad 468 to Circa 480 7. Bodhisatvayāna and Mūla/Sarvāstivāda from Circa AD 468 A. Introduction B. Image Cult and Śākyamuni Without Bodhisatvas C. Unlikelihood of Pratyékabuddhayāna/Buddhayāna D. Mūla/Sarvāstivāda 8. Impact of Alkhan Hun Invasions and Bauddha Exoduses A. Invasion III and Invasion IV by Alkhan Huns: 469-472 Invasion III from Circa ad 469 Invasion IV, Circa ad 472 B. ‘Bauddha Exodus IV’ from Western India, Middle India, and Deccan, Circa 469-472 9. Hiatuses, Sculptures, and Rock-Cut Monuments A. Hiatus II: Historical and Cultural Implications, Circa 469-472 B. Emergence of Bodhisatva Sculptures, Circa ad 470 C. Period III of Indian Rock-Cut Monuments, Circa ad 473–477 D. Continuation of Bodhisatvayāna and Sarvāstivāda 10. Alkhan Hunnic Invasion V: Devastation in Western & Middle India, Circa AD 477 A. ‘Bauddha Exodus V’ from Middle India & Deccan B. Abandonment of Bauddha Sites: Critical Evaluation of Spink’s Hypotheses C. Period IV of Indian Rock-Cut Monuments, Circa ad 478–480 D. Hiatus III & Hiatus IV, Circa ad 481–600 E. Comments on Tournier’s Study F. Comments on Spink’s Research Obituary Tables 1. Index of Selected Terms from Studies by Spink and Schlingloff 2. Provisional List of Bauddha Rock-Cut Sites in India 3. Indian Rock-Cut Sites Newly Started or Revived During Circa ad 460–480 4. Western India, Middle India, and Deccan: Yānas, Cults & Vādas or Nikāyas 5. Classification of Ajanta Narrative Paintings Based on Period, Tradition, and Cult 6. Ajanta Cave 9: 5th-Century Narrative Paintings and their Closest Parallels in Surviving Scriptures 7. Proposed Eleven Hunnic Invasions Within the Present Borders of India 8. Proposed Six Bauddha Exoduses due to Hunnic Disturbances 10. Classification of Civil Architecture Based on Use 9. Obligatory Hierarchy of Ranks or Taxa 11. ‘Kingdom’ of ‘Naval Architecture’ Over Time w/ its Phyla and Classes 12. Perennial ‘Class’ of ‘Mono-Functional’ Architecture w/ its ‘Orders’ 13. ‘Class’ of ‘Mono-Functional’ Architecture Over Time w/ its Orders 14. ‘Order’ of ‘Duo-Functional’ Architecture Over Time w/ its Families 15. ‘Family’ of ‘Tri-Functional’ Architecture Over Time w/ its Genus 16. Transformations in Tri-Functional Rock-Cut Architecture Over Time 17. Ajanta: Art and Architectural Evidence of a Shift in Yāna, Nikāya, and Cult Over Time Conclusion A. Part I: Sāvakayāna B. Part II: Bodhisatvayāna References Index Plates