تکامل آجانتا: از ساواکایانا تا بودی‌ساتوایانا در میان آشفتگی هونی

Ajanta's Evolution: From Savakayana to Bodhisatvayana amid Hunnic Turmoil offers a new scholarly exploration of the rock-cut caves, their sculpture and paintings, meticulously tracing the rise, transformation, and legacy of these architectural marvels. The book takes an interdisciplinary approach, combining elements of historical, archaeological, artistic and Buddhist studies. Part I treats the grand epoch of Sravakayana, discussing archaeological contexts, cave classification methodologies, and the emergence of rock-cut monasteries under the influence of King Hari Sena. Against the backdrop of Hunnic upheaval and societal transformations, Part II delves into the Bodhisatvayana era, chronicling the impact of Alchon or Alkhan Hun raids, migrations, and the evolution of the rock-cut monuments. The principle aim is to contextualize the site of Ajanta within a new historical setting. It seeks to address the paradox of how the Early Alchon or Alkhan Hunnic invasions, despite causing significant challenges to the development of the fifth-century cave temples, also provided opportunities for innovation. Another noteworthy aspect is the introduction of a novel taxonomical approach to the monuments. A revised chart for the taxonomy and typological classification of Buddhist rock-cut monuments is presented, mapping the evolutionary trajectory of architectural development over time. Ajanta’s Evolution: From Sāvakayāna to Bodhisatvayāna amid Hunnic Turmoil offers a new scholarly exploration of the rock-cut caves, their sculpture and paintings, meticulously tracing the rise, transformation, and legacy of these architectural marvels. The book takes an interdisciplinary approach, combining elements of historical, archaeological, artistic and Buddhist studies. Part I treats the grand epoch of Śrāvakayāna, discussing archaeological contexts, cave classification methodologies, and the emergence of rock-cut monasteries under the influence of King Hari Ṣeṇa. Against the backdrop of Hunnic upheaval and societal transformations, Part II delves into the Bodhisatvayāna era, chronicling the impact of Alchon or Alkhan Hun raids, migrations, and the evolution of the rock-cut monuments. The principle aim is to contextualize the site of Ajanta within a new historical setting. It seeks to address the paradox of how the Early Alchon or Alkhan Hunnic invasions, despite causing significant challenges to the development of the fifth-century cave temples, also provided opportunities for innovation. Another noteworthy aspect is the introduction of a novel taxonomical approach to the monuments. A revised chart for the taxonomy and typological classification of Buddhist rock-cut monuments is presented, mapping the evolutionary trajectory of architectural development over time. Rajesh Kumar Singh studied at undergraduate and postgraduate levels and obtained his doctorate in art history from M. S. University of Baroda. His doctoral research focused on Ajanta. Under the banner of the Ajanta Mahapitaka project, he has published six monographs and 22 articles in peer-reviewed journals to date. Cover 1 Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Contents Page 7 Preface 11 Acknowledgements 13 List of Abbreviations 14 Introduction: Basic Questions 17 A. Site of Ajanta 17 B. Architecture 19 C. Paintings 20 D. Iconography 21 E. Recession and Hiatus 22 F. Abandonment 23 G. Political Background 23 H. Approach, Scope, and Limitations of Study 24 Part I: Ajanta During Sāvakayāna, from Late Third Century bc to Circa ad 467 27 1. Archaeological Context 29 A. Location 29 B. Purpose 30 C. Historical Context and Periodisation 34 D. Sāvakayāna 36 2. Classification 39 A. Classification in Biology 39 Ranks 40 Taxonomy 40 Process 41 B. Classification of Bauddha Rock-Cut Architecture in India 41 Novel Classification 42 Novel Nomenclature System 44 E. ‘Mono-Functional’ Architecture 46 Type C: Cetiya/Thūpa/Stupa: From Exterior to Interior Spaces 47 Type L: Leṇa (Monastic Cell): From Constructed to Rock-Cut 48 Type M: Maṭapa (Hall/Pavilion): Transitioning from Constructed to Rock-Cut 49 F. Naval Architecture (Type NA) 50 Wooden Prototype for Vaulted & Apsidal Rock-Cut Monuments? 50 Naval Architecture 52 G. ‘Duo-Functional’ Architecture 56 Type LC: Leṇa-Cetiyaghara for Worship & Dwelling 56 Type MC1: Mono- to Duo-Functional Architecture 57 Type MC: Maṭapa-Cetiyaghara for Worship & Assembly/Congregation 57 Type LM: Leṇa-Maṭapa for Assembly/Congregation & Dwelling 59 H. ‘Tri-Functional’ Architecture 59 3. Caves of Period I, Late 3rd Century BC to 1st Century AD 61 A. Cave 31/26A 61 B. Cave 30/15A 62 C. Cave 13 62 D. Cave 10 62 Phase I: Architecture (2nd Century bc) 62 Phase II: ‘Gharamukha’ and Paintings (‘Jātaka Type,’ 1st c. bc – 1st c. ad) 66 Phase III: ‘Intrusive’ Paintings and Sculptures (Circa ad 478–480) 70 E. Cave 12 74 F. Cave 9 74 Phase I: Architecture and Five ‘Jātaka Type’ Paintings (1st c. bc–1st c. ad) 74 Phase II: Two ‘Avadāna Type’ Paintings (Circa ad 477) 76 Phase III: ‘Intrusive’ Paintings & Sculptures (Circa ad 478–480) 77 4. Hiatus I and Beginning of Hunnic Invasions, 2nd c. AD to Mid-Fifth c. AD 79 A. Alkhan Huns 79 B. Invasion I and Invasion II in circa 447 & 455: Conquest of Indus Valley Post-Gandhāra Expulsion 82 C. GVAPT: Alliance of Indian Rulers to Stop ‘Hūṇas’/ ‘Mlecchas’ 85 D. Bauddha Exodus I from Persia, Bactria, and Greater Gandhāra (Circa 447 & 455) 88 E. Image Cult in Western & Middle India 89 Vadnagar 89 Sanchi 90 Taranga 90 5. King Hari Ṣeṇa and Growth of Rock-Cut Monasteries in Period II, Circa AD 460-477 93 A. Rise of Vākāṭaka Empire 93 B. Period II of Rock-Cut Architecture, Circa ad 460–467/468 95 C. Revival of Duo-Functional Architecture 95 D. Planning of New Monuments at Ajanta: Mono-Functional and Duo-Functional Architecture 96 E. Patronage 99 F. Revival of Old Paradigms: Sāvakayāna & Cetiya Cult 100 G. Ajanta Narrative Murals: Indeterminable Textual Origins 102 Crucial Insights and Comparative Analysis 103 Inference of Lost Sources and the Proximate Nature of Understanding 104 Schlingloff’s Contribution: A Beacon in Murky Waters 104 Towards a Deeper Understanding 104 6. Hunnic Upheaval, Refugee Crisis, and Spread of Ideas, Circa AD 465–468 107 A. Hephthalites Expel Alkhans from Greater Gandhāra, etc. 107 B. ‘Bauddha Exodus II’ from Indo-Persian and Central Asian Sphere, Circa ad 465–467 108 C. Influx of Bauddha Refugees in Middle India and Deccan 108 D. Transition from ‘Duo-Functional’ to ‘Tri-Functional’ Architecture 111 E. Renewed Hunnic Menace and Varāhadeva’s Predicament, Circa Early 468 112 F. ‘Bauddha Exodus III:’ Sarvāstivādins from Greater Gandhāra Cultural Area 114 Part II: Ajanta During Bodhisatvayāna, from Circa ad 468 to Circa 480 117 7. Bodhisatvayāna and Mūla/Sarvāstivāda from Circa AD 468 119 A. Introduction 119 B. Image Cult and Śākyamuni Without Bodhisatvas 121 C. Unlikelihood of Pratyékabuddhayāna/Buddhayāna 122 D. Mūla/Sarvāstivāda 123 8. Impact of Alkhan Hun Invasions and Bauddha Exoduses 125 A. Invasion III and Invasion IV by Alkhan Huns: 469-472 125 Invasion III from Circa ad 469 125 Invasion IV, Circa ad 472 128 B. ‘Bauddha Exodus IV’ from Western India, Middle India, and Deccan, Circa 469-472 129 9. Hiatuses, Sculptures, and Rock-Cut Monuments 131 A. Hiatus II: Historical and Cultural Implications, Circa 469-472 131 B. Emergence of Bodhisatva Sculptures, Circa ad 470 132 C. Period III of Indian Rock-Cut Monuments, Circa ad 473–477 134 D. Continuation of Bodhisatvayāna and Sarvāstivāda 135 10. Alkhan Hunnic Invasion V: Devastation in Western & Middle India, Circa AD 477 139 A. ‘Bauddha Exodus V’ from Middle India & Deccan 140 B. Abandonment of Bauddha Sites: Critical Evaluation of Spink’s Hypotheses 141 C. Period IV of Indian Rock-Cut Monuments, Circa ad 478–480 141 D. Hiatus III & Hiatus IV, Circa ad 481–600 144 E. Comments on Tournier’s Study 144 F. Comments on Spink’s Research 146 Obituary 148 Tables 159 1. Index of Selected Terms from Studies by Spink and Schlingloff 161 2. Provisional List of Bauddha Rock-Cut Sites in India 162 3. Indian Rock-Cut Sites Newly Started or Revived During Circa ad 460–480 165 4. Western India, Middle India, and Deccan: Yānas, Cults & Vādas or Nikāyas 166 5. Classification of Ajanta Narrative Paintings Based on Period, Tradition, and Cult 166 6. Ajanta Cave 9: 5th-Century Narrative Paintings and their Closest Parallels in Surviving Scriptures 170 7. Proposed Eleven Hunnic Invasions Within the Present Borders of India 170 8. Proposed Six Bauddha Exoduses due to Hunnic Disturbances 170 10. Classification of Civil Architecture Based on Use 171 9. Obligatory Hierarchy of Ranks or Taxa 171 11. ‘Kingdom’ of ‘Naval Architecture’ Over Time w/ its Phyla and Classes 172 12. Perennial ‘Class’ of ‘Mono-Functional’ Architecture w/ its ‘Orders’ 172 13. ‘Class’ of ‘Mono-Functional’ Architecture Over Time w/ its Orders 173 14. ‘Order’ of ‘Duo-Functional’ Architecture Over Time w/ its Families 174 15. ‘Family’ of ‘Tri-Functional’ Architecture Over Time w/ its Genus 175 16. Transformations in Tri-Functional Rock-Cut Architecture Over Time 175 17. Ajanta: Art and Architectural Evidence of a Shift in Yāna, Nikāya, and Cult Over Time 176 Conclusion 149 A. Part I: Sāvakayāna 149 B. Part II: Bodhisatvayāna 154 References 179 Index 189 Plates 203 Ajanta Caves,Rock-Cut Monuments,Buddhist Architecture,Sarvastivada,Indology,South Asian studies,Buddhism,Buddhist studies,Hunnic studies