Aircraft engineering principles

Aircraft Engineering Principles is the essential text for anyone studying for licensed A&P or Aircraft Maintenance Engineer status. The book is written to meet the requirements of JAR-66/ECAR-66, the Joint Aviation Requirement (to be replaced by European Civil Aviation Regulation) for all aircraft engineers within Europe, which is also being continuously harmonised with Federal Aviation Administation requirements in the USA. The book covers modules 1, 2, 3, 4 and 8 of JAR-66/ECAR-66 in full and to a depth appropriate for Aircraft Maintenance Certifying Technicians, and will also be a valuabe reference for those taking ab initio programmes in JAR-147/ECAR-147 and FAR-147. In addition, the necessary mathematics, aerodynamics and electrical principles have been included to meet the requirements of introductory Aerospace Engineering courses. Numerous written and multiple choice questions are provided at the end of each chapter, to aid learning. * Delivers the essential principles and knowledge base required by Airframe and Propulsion (A&P) Mechanics for JAR-66/ECAR-66 and the associated Federal Aviation Administration qualifications * Ideal for both independent and tutor-assisted study * Comprehensive and accessible, with self-test questions, exercises and multiple choice questions to enhance learning front cover......Page 1 copyright......Page 5 table of contents......Page 6 front matter......Page 10 Acknowledgements......Page 12 PART 1 INTRODUCTION......Page 13 1.2 Differing job roles for aircraft maintenance certifying staff......Page 15 1.2.1 The aircraft maintenance certifying mechanic......Page 16 1.2.2 The aircraft maintenance category B certifying technician......Page 17 1.2.3 The base maintenance category C certifying engineer......Page 18 1.3 Opportunities for training, education and career progression......Page 19 1.3.1 Category A certifying mechanics......Page 20 1.3.3 Category C certifying engineers......Page 21 1.3.5 The Kingston qualification and experience pathway......Page 24 1.4.1 Qualifications structure......Page 27 1.4.3 Examinations and levels......Page 28 1.5.1 Introduction......Page 30 1.5.2 The birth of the ICAO......Page 31 1.5.3 The UK CAA......Page 32 1.5.4 Civil aviation requirements......Page 33 1.5.5 Aircraft maintenance engineering safety culture and human factors......Page 34 Human factors......Page 38 1.5.6 The BAC One-Eleven accident......Page 39 The impact of human factors......Page 40 The safety recommendations......Page 41 References......Page 42 PART 2 SCIENTIFIC FUNDAMENTALS......Page 43 General introduction......Page 45 2.2.1 Numbers and symbols......Page 46 2.2.2 Decimal numbers, powers of ten and estimation techniques......Page 52 Division of fractions......Page 55 Subtraction of fractions......Page 56 Percentages......Page 57 2.2.5 Ratio and proportion......Page 59 Direct proportion......Page 60 Constant of proportionality......Page 61 2.2.6 Number systems......Page 62 Powers and exponents......Page 65 2.3.2 The laws of indices......Page 66 2.3.3 Factorization and products......Page 67 Products......Page 68 Factorization......Page 69 Simplifying algebraic expressions......Page 71 Algebraic division......Page 73 2.3.5 Transposition of formulae......Page 75 Transposition of simple formulae......Page 76 Transposition of formulae with common factors......Page 77 Transposition of formulae involving powers and roots......Page 78 2.3.6 Evaluation of formulae......Page 79 Logarithms and logarithm tables......Page 80 Using logarithms to perform arithmetic operations......Page 81 2.3.8 Surface area and volume of regular solids......Page 82 2.4.1 Solution of simple equations......Page 85 2.4.2 Graphical axes, scales and co-ordinates......Page 86 2.4.3 Graphs of linear equations......Page 88 Solution of quadratic equations by factorization......Page 90 Solution of quadratic equations using formula......Page 91 Solution of quadratic equations using a graphical method......Page 92 Analytical solution of simultaneous equations......Page 93 Graphical solution of two simultaneous equations......Page 94 The trigonometric ratios......Page 95 The sine ratio......Page 96 The cosine ratio......Page 98 The tangent ratio......Page 99 Rectangular and polar co-ordinates......Page 101 Converting rectangular and polar co-ordinates......Page 102 Angles of elevation and depression......Page 103 Bearings......Page 104 Elements and properties of the circle......Page 105 2.4.8 Geometric constructions......Page 108 ARITHMETIC......Page 112 ALGEBRA......Page 114 GEOMETRY AND TRIGONOMETRY......Page 116 3.1.1 Transposition and evaluation of more complex formulae and equations......Page 121 3.1.2 Logarithms and logarithmic functions......Page 122 3.1.3 The laws of logarithms......Page 123 3.1.4 Naperian logarithms and the exponential function......Page 125 3.1.5 Complex numbers......Page 127 3.2.1 Angles in any quadrant......Page 130 3.2.2 General solution of triangles......Page 131 3.2.3 The radian and circular measure......Page 134 The area of a sector......Page 135 Graphs of sine and cosine functions......Page 136 The cosine function......Page 138 3.2.5 Trigonometric identities......Page 141 3.3 Statistical methods......Page 143 The bar chart......Page 144 Frequency distributions......Page 147 3.3.2 Statistical measurement......Page 149 Mean for grouped data......Page 150 Mode......Page 151 Standard deviation......Page 153 3.4.1 Introduction......Page 156 Functions......Page 157 The gradient of a curve and graphical differentiation......Page 159 Notation for the derivative......Page 161 Differentiation......Page 162 Rate of change......Page 164 Turning points......Page 165 3.4.3 The integral calculus......Page 168 Some common integrals......Page 170 Simple applications of the integral......Page 171 Area under a curve......Page 172 The definite integral......Page 173 4.2 Units of measurement......Page 177 Metre......Page 178 Candela......Page 179 Weight......Page 182 The mass–weight relationship......Page 183 Relative density......Page 184 4.3.4 Pressure......Page 186 4.3.5 Speed, velocity and acceleration......Page 187 4.3.7 Newton’s laws of motion......Page 188 4.3.8 Temperature......Page 189 4.4.2 Chemical bonding......Page 190 4.5.2 Liquids......Page 194 4.6 Mechanics......Page 195 4.7.1 Vector representation of forces......Page 196 4.7.2 Resolution of forces......Page 199 4.7.3 Moments and couples......Page 201 4.7.4 Couples......Page 206 4.7.5 Aircraft weight and balance calculations......Page 207 Definition of stress......Page 209 Definition of strain......Page 210 Bulk modulus......Page 211 Specific strength......Page 213 4.7.10 Load–extension graphs......Page 214 4.7.11 Torsion......Page 215 Velocity–time graphs......Page 219 4.8.2 Using Newton’s laws......Page 221 Propulsive thrust......Page 222 Angular velocity......Page 224 Torque and angular acceleration......Page 225 Gyroscopic motion......Page 226 Sperry’s rule of precession......Page 227 4.8.5 Vibration and periodic motion......Page 228 Resonance......Page 229 4.8.6 Simple harmonic motion......Page 230 The spring–mass system......Page 231 The pendulum......Page 232 Work done......Page 234 Mechanical energy......Page 235 Conservation of mechanical energy......Page 237 Power......Page 238 4.8.8 Friction......Page 239 Solving problems involving friction......Page 240 Forces on a body at rest on an inclined plane......Page 242 Forces on a body moving up and down an inclined plane......Page 243 Mechanical advantage, velocity ratio and efficiency......Page 246 Law of a machine......Page 247 Pulleys......Page 248 The screw jack......Page 249 Gear trains......Page 250 4.9.1 Pressure......Page 252 Hydrostatic pressure......Page 253 Hydraulic press......Page 254 Atmospheric pressure......Page 255 Measurement of pressure......Page 256 4.9.2 Fluid viscosity......Page 258 Gases......Page 259 The International Standard Atmosphere......Page 261 Changes in properties of air with altitude......Page 262 4.9.4 Fluids in motion......Page 263 Equation of continuity......Page 264 The Bernoulli’s equation......Page 265 Using Bernoulli’s equation......Page 266 The venturi tube......Page 267 Compressibility......Page 268 Temperature measurement......Page 269 Thermal expansion......Page 270 Heat energy transfer......Page 271 Specific heat at constant pressure......Page 273 Latent heat......Page 275 4.10.2 Thermodynamic systems......Page 277 4.10.3 The first law of thermodynamics......Page 279 Constant volume process......Page 282 Reversible adiabatic process......Page 283 4.10.5 The second law of thermodynamics......Page 284 The practical four-stroke cycle......Page 285 The Brayton cycle or constant pressure cycle......Page 287 The practical Brayton cycle......Page 288 4.11.1 Light......Page 289 The laws of reflection......Page 290 Images in curved mirrors......Page 291 Calculation......Page 292 Refraction......Page 293 Variation in the speed of light......Page 294 Fiber optic light propagation......Page 295 Lenses......Page 296 Transverse waves......Page 299 Diffraction......Page 300 Electromagnetic spectrum......Page 301 Radio waves......Page 302 Aircraft radio communications......Page 303 The Doppler effect......Page 305 Sound waves......Page 306 Perceiving sound......Page 307 Units......Page 309 Statics......Page 310 Kinematics and dynamics......Page 312 Fluid dynamics......Page 314 Thermodynamics......Page 316 Light and sound......Page 318 PART 3 ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC FUNDAMENTALS......Page 321 5.1.1 Electrical units and symbols......Page 323 5.1.2 Multiples and sub-multiples......Page 324 5.2.1 Atomic structure......Page 325 5.2.3 Semiconductors......Page 326 Syllabus......Page 327 5.3.3 Coulomb’s law......Page 328 5.3.5 Electric field strength......Page 329 5.4.1 Charge......Page 331 5.4.6 Conductance......Page 332 5.4.8 Energy......Page 333 5.5.1 Friction......Page 334 5.5.3 Magnetism and motion......Page 335 5.5.6 Pressure (piezoelectric) cells......Page 336 5.6.1 Cells and batteries......Page 338 5.6.2 Primary cells......Page 339 5.6.3 Lead–acid cells......Page 340 5.6.4 Ni-Cd cells......Page 341 5.6.6 Cells connected in series and parallel......Page 342 5.6.8 Thermocouples......Page 343 5.6.9 Photocells......Page 344 5.7.1 Current, voltage and resistance......Page 345 5.7.2 Ohm’s law......Page 346 5.7.3 Kirchhoff’s current law......Page 347 5.7.5 Series and parallel circuit calculations......Page 348 5.7.6 Internal resistance......Page 351 Syllabus......Page 353 5.8.2 Temperature coefficient of resistance......Page 354 5.8.3 Resistor types, values and tolerances......Page 355 5.8.4 Power ratings......Page 356 5.8.5 Resistor colour codes......Page 358 5.8.6 Series and parallel combinations of resistors......Page 359 5.8.7 The potential divider......Page 360 5.8.8 The current divider......Page 361 5.8.9 Variable resistors......Page 362 5.8.10 The Wheatstone bridge......Page 363 5.8.11 Thermistors......Page 364 5.9.1 Power, work and energy......Page 365 5.9.3 Power formulae......Page 366 5.10.1 Operation and function of a capacitor......Page 367 5.10.2 Capacitance, charge and voltage......Page 369 5.10.3 Energy storage......Page 370 5.10.4 Factors affecting capacitance......Page 371 5.10.5 Capacitor types, values and tolerances......Page 372 5.10.6 Working voltages......Page 373 5.10.7 Capacitor markings and colour codes......Page 374 5.10.8 Capacitors in series and parallel......Page 376 5.10.9 Capacitors charging and discharging through a resistor......Page 377 Syllabus......Page 381 5.11.3 Electromagnetism......Page 382 5.11.4 Force on a current-carrying conductor......Page 384 5.11.5 Magnetic field strength and flux density......Page 386 5.11.6 Magnetic circuits......Page 387 5.11.8 B–H curves......Page 389 5.12.1 Induction principles......Page 391 5.12.2 Induced e.m.f.......Page 392 5.12.4 Lenz’s law......Page 393 5.12.5 Self and mutual inductance......Page 394 5.12.7 Energy storage......Page 395 5.12.9 Inductor types, values and tolerances......Page 396 5.13.1 Basic generator theory......Page 398 5.13.2 A simple AC generator......Page 399 5.13.3 DC generators......Page 401 5.13.4 DC motors......Page 403 5.13.5 Series wound, shunt wound and compound motors......Page 406 5.13.6 Starter-generator......Page 407 5.14.1 Alternating current......Page 409 5.14.3 Frequency and periodic time......Page 410 5.14.4 Average, peak, peak-to-peak and r.m.s. values......Page 411 5.14.5 Expression for a sine wave voltage......Page 412 5.14.6 Three-phase supplies......Page 413 5.15.1 AC flowing through pure resistance......Page 414 5.15.2 Reactance......Page 415 5.15.4 Capacitive reactance......Page 416 5.15.5 Impedance......Page 417 5.15.6 Resistance and inductance in series......Page 418 5.15.7 Resistance and capacitance in series......Page 419 5.15.8 Resistance, inductance and capacitance in series......Page 420 5.15.9 Parallel and series–parallel AC circuits......Page 422 5.15.10 Power factor......Page 424 5.16.1 Transformer principles......Page 426 5.16.2 Transformer applications......Page 427 5.16.3 Transformer regulation......Page 428 5.16.4 Transformer efficiency and losses......Page 429 5.17.1 Types of filter......Page 430 5.17.3 High-pass filters......Page 431 5.17.4 Band-pass filters......Page 432 5.17.5 Band-stop filters......Page 433 5.17.6 More complex filters......Page 434 5.18.1 AC generators......Page 435 5.18.4 Three-phase distribution......Page 437 5.18.6 A practical three-phase AC generator......Page 440 Syllabus......Page 441 5.19.2 Producing a rotating magnetic field......Page 442 5.19.4 Three-phase induction motors......Page 444 5.19.5 Slip, torque and speed......Page 445 5.19.7 Capacitor starting......Page 448 5.19.8 Shaded pole motors......Page 449 Electron theory......Page 450 Electrical terminology......Page 451 DC circuits......Page 452 Resistance and resistors......Page 453 Capacitance and capacitors......Page 454 Magnetism......Page 455 DC motor and generator theory......Page 456 AC theory......Page 457 Resistive, capacitive and inductive circuits......Page 458 Filters......Page 459 AC motors......Page 460 6.1.1 Electronic circuit and systems......Page 463 6.1.2 Reading and understanding circuit diagrams......Page 465 6.1.3 Characteristic graphs......Page 466 Semiconductor materials......Page 468 Semiconductor classification......Page 470 The P–N junction diode......Page 471 Diode characteristics......Page 472 Maximum ratings......Page 473 Zener diodes......Page 474 SCRs......Page 476 LEDs......Page 477 Rectifiers......Page 478 Voltage doublers and voltage triplers......Page 485 Varactor diodes......Page 486 Diode detector (demodulator)......Page 488 Syllabus......Page 489 Bipolar junction transistors......Page 490 Transistor parameters......Page 492 Current gain......Page 495 FET characteristics......Page 496 Classes of operation......Page 499 Multi-stage circuits......Page 503 Buffers......Page 505 Bistables......Page 507 Logic families......Page 508 Operational amplifiers......Page 510 Input resistance......Page 512 Slew rate......Page 513 Gain and bandwidth......Page 515 Inverting amplifier with feedback......Page 516 Operational amplifier configurations......Page 517 Operational amplifier circuits......Page 518 Differentiators......Page 519 Summing amplifiers......Page 520 Positive versus negative feedback......Page 521 6.3.1 PCB design considerations......Page 523 6.3.3 PCB manufacture......Page 524 6.3.4 Surface mounting technology......Page 526 6.4.1 Control systems......Page 527 6.4.2 Servomechanisms......Page 528 6.4.3 Control methods......Page 529 6.4.5 Sensors......Page 530 6.4.6 Transformers......Page 534 6.4.7 The E and I transformer......Page 535 6.4.8 Synchros......Page 536 6.4.9 Open- and closed-loop control......Page 539 6.4.10 Control system response......Page 540 Semiconductors......Page 543 Printed circuits......Page 547 Servomechanisms......Page 548 PART 4 FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS......Page 551 7.2 A review of atmospheric physics......Page 553 7.2.3 Humidity measurement......Page 554 7.2.6 The International Civil Aviation Organization ISA......Page 555 7.3.1 Static and dynamic pressure......Page 557 Streamline flow, laminar flow and turbulent flow......Page 558 Aerofoil terminology......Page 560 7.3.4 Effects on airflow with changing AOA......Page 563 Viscosity......Page 564 Boundary layer separation and control......Page 565 7.3.6 Lift, drag and pitching moment of an aerofoil......Page 566 7.3.7 Total aircraft drag and its components......Page 568 Interference drag......Page 569 Induced drag......Page 570 Wing tip stall......Page 571 7.3.8 Aerodynamic effects of ice accretion......Page 572 7.4.1 The four forces acting on the aircraft......Page 573 Gliding flight......Page 576 Climbing flight......Page 577 7.4.3 Aircraft loading and the flight envelope......Page 579 7.5.1 The nature of stability......Page 582 Aircraft response to a disturbance......Page 583 Lateral stability......Page 584 Longitudinal stability......Page 588 Directional stability......Page 590 7.6.1 Introduction......Page 591 Aileron drag......Page 592 The rudder......Page 593 Trailing edge flaps......Page 594 Leading edge flaps......Page 595 Aerodynamic balance......Page 596 Tabs......Page 597 Trim tab......Page 598 7.7 Multiple choice questions......Page 599 APPENDICES......Page 607 A Engineering licensing examinations......Page 609 B Organizations offering aircraft maintenance engineering training and education......Page 613 C The role of the European Aviation Safety Agency......Page 615 D Mathematical tables......Page 617 Ampere......Page 627 E.3 English Engineering system (Imperial) base units......Page 628 E.5 Examples using the SI system......Page 629 E.6 Examples of useful conversions......Page 632 F Answers to "Test your understanding"......Page 635 index......Page 649

The first volume in a definitive series of textbooks dedicated to aircraft engineering maintenance, this book provides a crucial outline of aircraft engineering principles. It is valuable for anyone pursuing a career in aircraft maintenance engineering or a related aerospace engineering discipline, and in particular will be suitable for those studying for licensed aircraft maintenance engineer status. The book systematically outlines modules 1, 2, 3, 4 and 8 of JAR-66/Part-66, the Joint Aviation Requirement for aircraft engineers within Europe that are also being continuously harmonized with Federal Aviation Administration requirements in the USA.

•The perfect blend of academic and practical information for aircraft engineering maintenance
•Delivers the essential principles and knowledge needed by Aircraft Certifying Mechanics, Technicians and Engineers for JAR-66/Part-66 qualification
•Comprehensive and accessible, with self-test questions, exercises and multiple choice questions to enhance learning for both independent and tutor-assisted study

All the necessary mathematics, basic aerodynamics and electrical/electronic principles are examined in-depth, meeting the requirements of JAR-66/Part-66 modules, Aerospace Engineering City and Guilds modules, EDEXCEL National Units, elements of EDEXCEL Higher National Units, and a Foundation Degree in aircraft maintenance engineering or a related discipline. An introduction to the global aircraft maintenance industry, its career opportunities, legislative framework and safety culture, is all at the reader’s fingertips in this valuable and insightful text.

Lloyd Dingle is a chartered aeronautical engineer with over 25 years practical experience in the field of aircraft maintenance, specializing in aircraft structures and fluid power systems. He is currently a Lecturer at Farnborough College of Technology, UK.

Mike Tooley has over 30 years of experience of teaching electrical principles, electronics and avionics to engineers and technicians, previously as Head of Department of Engineering and Vice Principal at Brooklands College in Surrey, UK, and currently as a consultant and freelance technical author.