Air Force Handbook 10-644 Survival Evasion Resistance Escape SERE Operations: 27 March 2017

1. Mission 1.1. IP Mission 1.1.1. Friendly Doesn’t Always Mean Friendly 1.1.2. Without Giving Aid or Comfort 1.1.3. Return Early and in Good Physical and Mental Condition 1.2. Goals 1.3. Survival 1.4. Decisions 1.5. Elements 2. Conditions Affecting Survival 2.1. Environmental Conditions 2.1.1. Climate 2.1.2. Terrain 2.1.3. Life Forms 2.1.3.1. Plant Life 2.1.3.2. Animal Life 2.2. The IP's Condition 2.2.1. Physical 2.2.1.1. Physical Weakness 2.2.2. Psychological 2.2.2.1. Psychological Effectiveness 2.2.2.2. Depression - Mental "Lows" 2.2.2.3. Crisis and Coping Phases 2.2.2.4. Will to Survive - The Most Important Tool 2.2.3. Material 2.2.3.1. Appropriate Clothing 2.2.3.2. Appropriate Equipment 2.2.4. Legal and Moral Obligations 2.2.5. Other Responsibilities that Influence Behavior 2.2.5.1. Perception of Influence 2.3. Duration-The Time Condition 2.4. Sociopolitical Condition 2.4.1. Friendly People 2.4.2. Hostile People 2.4.3. Unknown People 2.5. Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear and Explosive (CBRNE) Conditions 3. The IP’s Needs 3.1. Maintaining Life 3.1.1. Personal Protection 3.1.1.1. Clothing 3.1.1.2. Equipment 3.1.1.3. Shelter 3.1.1.4. Fire 3.1.2. Sustenance 3.1.2.1. Water 3.1.2.2. Food 3.1.3. Health (Physical and Psychological) 3.1.3.1. Physical Health 3.1.3.2. Psychological Health 3.1.4. Travel 3.2. Maintaining Honor 3.2.1. Captivity- Worse than Evasion 3.2.2. The Need to Resist Exploitation 3.3. Returning 4. The Psychological Aspects of SERE 4.1. Captivity 4.2. The Will to Survive 4.2.1. Desert Environment Tests the Will to Survive 4.2.2. Loss of Hope 4.3. Overcoming Stress 4.4. Crisis Period 4.5. The Coping Period 4.6. Situation Awareness 4.6.1. Impact of Self Perception 4.6.2. Adaptation 4.6.3. Thinking Ahead 4.6.4. Situational Awareness 4.7. Attitude 4.7.1. Controlling Emotions 4.7.2. Tolerance 4.7.3. Overcoming Fear 4.7.4. Optimism 4.8. Contributing Factors 4.9. Survival Stresses 4.9.1. Adapting to Stress 4.9.2. Threats to Maintaining Life 4.9.3. Comfort 4.9.4. Apathy 4.9.5. Common Survival Stressors 4.9.6. Pain 4.9.7. Thirst 4.9.8. Cold and Heat 4.9.8.1. Cold 4.9.8.2. Heat 4.9.9. Effects of Wind 4.9.9.1. Fear as a Result of Sandstorms Snowstorms 4.9.10. Mirages and Illusions 4.10. Hunger 4.10.1. Starvation 4.10.2. Food Procurement 4.10.3. Aversions to Strange Foods 4.10.4. Controlling Food Aversions 4.11. Frustration 4.11.1. Obstacles 4.11.2. Controlling Frustration 4.12. Fatigue 4.12.1. Avoiding Complete Exhaustion 4.12.2. The Need for Rest 4.12.3. The Need for Short Rest Breaks to Improve Morale 4.12.4. Rest During Strenuous Activity 4.12.5. Reducing Fatigue 4.13. Maintaining Group Morale and Efficiency 4.14. Sleep Deprivation 4.14.1. Compensating for Sleep Loss 4.14.2. Sleepiness Comes in Waves during Sleep Depravity 4.15. Isolation 4.16. Insecurity 4.16.1. Loss of Self-Esteem 4.16.2. Loss of Self-Determination 4.17. Depression 4.17.1. Factors which Can Create A Continuous Cycle of Depression 4.17.2. Onset of Depression in an Survival Situation 4.18. Emotional Reactions 4.18.1. Fear 4.18.1.1. Different Reactions to Fear 4.18.1.2. Fear is Common in Life Threatening Emergencies 4.18.1.3. Controlling the Fear 4.18.1.4. Physical Signs and Symptoms of Fear 4.18.1.5. Psychological Signs and Symptoms of Fear 4.18.1.6. Understanding, Admitting, and Accepting Fear 4.18.2. Thinking Logically in the Face of Fear 4.18.3. Coping Effectively with Fear 4.18.4. Overcoming Fear 4.19. Anxiety 4.19.1. Overcoming Anxiety 4.20. Panic 4.21. Hate 4.21.1. Emotional Feelings of Hate as a Motivator 4.21.2. Examining Why Hate is Present 4.22. Resentment 4.23. Anger 4.24. Impatience 4.24.1. Overcoming Impatience 4.25. Dependence 4.26. Loneliness 4.26.1. Combating Feelings of Loneliness 4.26.2. Being Active to Counter Loneliness 4.27. Boredom 4.27.1. Alleviating Boredom 4.28. Hopelessness 4.28.1. Situations Where an IP Loses the Will to Survive 4.28.2. Eliminating Stress to Treat Hopelessness 4.28.3. Purposeful Attitude to Treat Hopelessness 4.28.4. Compromise 4.29. Summary 5. SERE Medicine 5.1. Health Preservation 5.1.1. Triage in Group Survival 5.1.2. Factors that Reduce Survival Expectancy 5.1.3. Loss of Gender Boundaries in a Survival Situation 5.1.4. How Illnesses Can Interfere with a Successful Survival Situation 5.1.5. Probable Medical Injury in an IP Situation 5.2. Basic Health Care 5.2.1.1. Washing 5.2.1.2. Substitute when Soap is Unavailable 5.2.1.3. Air Baths When Water is in Short Supply 5.2.1.4. Keeping Hair Trimmed 5.2.1.5. Infection and Open Wounds 5.2.2. Care of the Mouth and Teeth 5.2.2.1. Removing Food Debris 5.2.2.2. Cleaning Dentures and Removable Bridges 5.2.2.3. Dental Problems 5.2.2.4. Toothaches 5.2.2.5. Maintaining a Well Maintained Cleaning Program 5.2.3. Care of the Feet 5.2.3.1. Washing or Air Cleaning Feet 5.2.3.2. Trimming Toenails 5.2.3.3. Proper Fitting and Breaking in Boots 5.2.3.4. Socks 5.2.3.5. Examining Feet Regularly When Traveling 5.3. Clothing and Bedding 5.3.1. Rest 5.3.1.1. Planning Session 5.3.1.2. Planned Rest Periods 5.4. Illness 5.4.1. Personal Hygiene 5.4.2. Food Poisoning 5.4.3. Gastrointestinal Problems 5.4.3.1. Diarrhea and Dysentery 5.4.3.2. Worms and Intestinal Parasites 5.4.3.2.1. Symptoms and Care of Worm Infestation 5.4.4. Nutritional Deficiencies 5.4.4.1. Vitamin B Deficiency (Beriberi) 5.4.4.2. Vitamin A Deficiency 5.4.5. Skin Diseases 5.4.5.1. Lesions 5.4.5.2. Fungal Infections 5.4.5.3. Boils and Blisters 5.5. Injury 5.5.1. General Management of Injuries 5.5.1.1. Bleeding 5.5.1.1.1. Pressure Points to Stop Hemorrhaging 5.5.1.1.2. Tourniquet 5.5.1.2. Pain 5.5.1.2.1. Position 5.5.1.2.2. Heat and Cold 5.5.1.2.3. Pain Killers 5.5.1.3. Shock 5.5.2. Infections 5.5.2.1. Basic Treatment 5.5.2.2. The "Open Treatment" Method 5.5.2.3. Maggot Therapy 5.5.2.4. Physiological "Logistics" 5.5.2.5. Drainage 5.5.2.6. Debridement 5.5.2.7. Sutures 5.5.2.8. Dressings and Bandages 5.5.3. Lacerations 5.5.3.1. Infection 5.5.3.2. Healing 5.5.4. Fractures and Sprains 5.5.4.1. Fractures 5.5.4.1.1. Reducing Fractures 5.5.4.1.2. Immobilizing Fractures 5.5.4.2. Sprains 5.5.4.3. Splints 5.5.4.4. Immobilization Duration 5.5.4.5. Swelling 5.5.4.6. Rehabilitation 5.5.5. Burns 5.5.5.1. Maintenance of Fluids to Recover From Burns 5.5.6. Head Injuries 5.5.6.1. Performing a Cricothyroidotomy 5.5.6.2. Locating the Cricothyroid Membrane 5.5.6.3. Tools Needed to Perform a Cricothyroidotomy 5.5.6.4. Speed is Necessary for Performing a Cricothyroidotomy 5.5.6.4.1. Cricothyroidotomy Procedure 5.5.7. Abdominal Wounds 5.5.8. Chest Injuries 5.5.8.1. Sucking Chest Wounds 5.5.9. Eye Injuries 5.5.10. Thorns and Splinters 5.5.11. Blisters and Abrasions 5.5.12. Insect Bites 5.6. Environmental Injury 5.6.1. Dehydration 5.6.2. Heat Related Injuries 5.6.2.1. Preventing Heat Related Injuries 5.6.2.2. Heat Cramps 5.6.2.3. Heat Exhaustion 5.6.2.4. Heat Stroke 5.6.3. Cold Related Injuries 5.6.3.1. Preventing Cold Related Injuries 5.6.3.1.1. Inadequate Insulation from Cold or Wind 5.6.3.1.2. Restricting Circulation 5.6.3.1.3. Fatigue 5.6.3.1.4. Poor Nutrition 5.6.3.2. Hypothermia 5.6.3.2.1. Mild Hypothermia 5.6.3.2.2. Additional Symptoms of Hypothermia 5.6.3.2.3. Proper Emergency Measures 5.6.3.3. Frostbite 5.6.3.3.1. Symptoms of Frostbite 5.6.3.3.2. Treating Frostbite 5.6.3.3.3. Frostnip 5.6.3.3.4. What to do Once the Area is Re-Warmed 5.6.3.4. Trench Foot or Immersion Foot 5.6.4. Bites and Stings 5.6.4.1. Prevention 5.6.4.2. Snakebites 5.6.4.2.1. Hemotoxic Venom Types 5.6.4.2.2. Neurotoxic Venom Types 5.6.4.2.3. Neurotoxic and Hemotoxic Venom Types 5.6.4.2.4. Snake Bite Treatment 5.6.4.3. Spider Bites and Scorpion Stings 5.6.4.3.1. Brown Recluse Spider 5.6.5. Contact Skin (Dermatitis) Irritation 5.6.5.1. Preventing Skin Irritation 5.6.5.2. Initial Treatment 5.6.5.3. Jewelweed 5.7. Marine Animals that Bite 5.7.1. Sharks 5.7.1.1. Behavior of Hungry Sharks 5.7.1.2. Preventing Shark Attack 5.7.1.2.1. What to do if Threatened by a Shark 5.7.1.3. Staying Quiet when Faced with Threatened by a Shark 5.7.2. Barracuda 5.7.3. Moray Eels 5.8. Marine Animals that Sting 5.8.1. Coelenterates 5.8.1.1. Corals 5.8.1.2. Sea Anemones 5.8.1.3. Venom Apparatus of Coelenterates 5.8.1.3.1. Symptoms of Stings 5.8.1.3.2. Jellyfish 5.8.1.3.3. Relieve Pain 5.8.1.3.4. Alleviating the Effects of Poison 5.8.1.3.5. The Potential need to Perform CPR 5.9. Marine Animals that Puncture 5.9.1. Mollusks 5.9.1.1. Gastropoda (Stomach Footers) 5.9.1.1.1. Treatment 5.9.2. Echinoderms 5.9.2.1. Complications 5.9.2.2. Treatment 5.9.2.3. Prevention 5.9.3. Venomous Spine Fish (Fish That Sting) 5.9.3.1. Pain Inflicted by Fish That Sting 5.9.3.2. How to Remove the Barb of a Stingray 5.9.3.3. Treating the Sting Injury 5.9.3.4. Treatment 5.10. Medical Plants for SERE Scenarios 5.10.1. Aloe Vera 5.10.2. Peppers 5.10.3. Common Plantain 5.10.4. Dandelion 5.10.5. Dog Rose 5.10.6. Garlic 5.10.7. Mullein Leaves 5.10.8. Onions 5.10.9. White Willow 5.10.10. Yarrow 5.10.11. Sweet Gum 5.10.12. Balsam 5.10.13. Preparing Plants for Medical Use 5.10.13.1. Herbal Teas 5.10.13.2. Macerations 5.10.13.3. Decoctions 5.10.13.4. Infused Oils 5.10.13.5. Ointments 5.10.13.6. Poultices 5.11. Conclusions 6. Weather 6.1. Knowledge of Weather 6.2. Atmosphere 6.3. Elements Affecting Weather 6.3.1. Temperature 6.3.2. Air Pressure 6.3.3. Wind 6.3.4. Moisture 6.3.4.1. Warm Fronts 6.4. Storms 6.4.1. Thunderstorms and Lightning 6.4.2. Lighting and Thunder 6.4.3. Tornadoes 6.4.3.1. What to do if Caught in Open Wind 6.4.4. Winter Storms 6.4.5. Hurricanes or Typhoons 6.4.5.1. Using Severe Winds, Rain, and Surf to the IP’s Advantage 6.5. Weather Forecasting 6.5.1. Cloud Formations 6.5.2. Higher Elevation Cloud Types 6.5.3. Mid Elevation Cloud Types 6.5.4. Lower Elevation Cloud Types 6.5.5. Other Weather Indicators 6.5.5.1. Low Hanging Clouds 6.5.5.2. Moon, Sun, and Stars 6.5.5.3. Red Skies 6.5.6. What to Look for When Bad Weather is Near 6.5.7. Implications of a Cold Front in the Summer 6.5.8. Morning Rainbow 6.5.9. Increased Flower Fragrance is a Sign of Stormy Weather 6.5.10. Looking to Plant Behavior for Signs of Rain 6.5.11. Sounds as a Predictor of Rain 6.5.12. Birds as a Predictor of Rain 6.5.13. Rocks as a Predictor of Rain 6.5.14. Smoke as a Predictor of a Storm 6.6. Summary 7. Environment 7.1. Terrain 7.1.1. Mountains 7.1.2. Valleys 7.1.3. Plateaus 7.1.4. Water 7.1.4.1. Oceans 7.1.4.2. Ice 7.2. Life Forms 7.2.1. Plants and Trees 7.2.1.1. Trees 7.2.1.2. Plants 7.2.2. Animal Life 7.3. Climate 7.3.1. Atmosphere 7.3.1.1. Water and the Atmosphere 7.3.2. Winds 7.4. Effects of Climate on Terrain 7.4.1. Heavy Precipitation 7.4.2. Effects of Wind Erosion 7.4.3. Effects of Frost Action 7.5. Effects of Terrain on Climate 7.5.1. Weather Systems as a Result of Evaporation 7.5.2. Interior of Large Continent Masses 7.5.3. Mountains can Serve as Moisture Barriers 7.6. Effects of Climate and Terrain on Life Forms 7.6.1. Rainfall and Plentiful Plants 7.6.2. Plants Compete for Limited Rainfall 7.6.3. How Vegetation is Affected by the Terrain 7.6.4. Animal Life in Terrain with Greater Rainfall 7.6.5. The Affect of Temperature on the Behavior of Animals 8. Global Climate Characteristics 8.1. Tropical Climates 8.1.1. Constant Length of Day and Night 8.1.2. Temperature Variation 8.1.3. Lack of Systematic Pattern of Major Tropical Landforms 8.1.4. Tropical Rain Forests 8.1.5. Characteristics of Tropical Rain Forests 8.1.6. Plant Life in Tropical Rain Forests 8.1.7. Tree Height in Tropical Rain Forests 8.1.8. Distribution of Tropical Rain Forests 8.1.8.1. Rain Forest in the Americas 8.1.8.2. The Largest Rain Forest Area in the African Continent 8.1.8.3. Rain Forest in the Eastern Tropics 8.1.8.3.1. Rain Forest in India 8.1.9. Semi-Evergreen Seasonal Forest 8.1.9.1. 8.1.10. Tropical Scrub and Thorn Forest 8.1.11. Savannas 8.1.11.1. Savanna of South America 8.1.11.2. Savanna in Africa 8.1.12. Vegetation 8.1.12.1. Food Plants 8.1.12.1.1. Plant Foods of the Semi-Evergreen Seasonal Forest 8.1.13. Animal Life 8.1.13.1. The Pig in Tropical Areas 8.1.13.2. Reptiles and Amphibians in the Tropics 8.1.13.3. Deer 8.1.13.4. Insects in the Jungle 8.1.13.4.1. Malaria 8.1.13.4.2. Ant Species 8.1.13.4.3. Ticks 8.1.13.4.4. Fleas 8.1.13.4.5. Typhus Fever 8.1.13.4.6. Leeches 8.1.13.4.7. Spiders 8.1.14. Human Population 8.2. Dry Climates 8.2.1. Deserts 8.2.1.1. Sahara Desert 8.2.1.2. Arabian Desert 8.2.1.3. Gobi Desert - "Waterless Place" 8.2.1.4. Australian Desert 8.2.1.5. Atacama-Peruvian Desert of South America 8.2.1.5.1. The First Desert Region 8.2.1.5.2. The Second Desert Region 8.2.1.6. United States and Mexican Deserts 8.2.1.6.1. Characteristics 8.2.1.7. Kalahari Desert 8.2.2. Vegetation 8.2.3. Animal Life 8.2.4. Human Population 8.3. Warm Temperate Climates 8.3.1. Types of Climate in a Temperate Zone 8.3.1.1. Temperate Oceanic Climate 8.3.1.2. Temperate Continental Climate 8.3.2. Variations in Climate in the Temperate Zone 8.3.2.1. The Humid Subtropical Zone 8.3.2.2. The Marine West Coast Climate 8.3.2.3. Middle Latitude Desert and Steppe Climates 8.3.3. Major Topographical Characteristics 8.3.4. Temperate Zone Biomes 8.3.4.1. Coniferous Forests 8.3.4.2. Deciduous Forests 8.3.4.3. Deciduous and Mixed Deciduous-Coniferous Forest 8.3.4.3.1. Deciduous and Mixed Deciduous Coniferous Forests 8.3.5. Steppes and Prairies 8.3.5.1. Steppes in Russia 8.3.5.2. Main Plants 8.3.6. Evergreen Scrub Forests 8.3.7. Vegetation 8.3.7.1. Desert Plants on the Fringe of the Deserts 8.3.8. Animal Life 8.3.8.1. Common Herbivores in Steppes and Prairies 8.3.8.2. Insects 8.3.8.3. Deer and Birds 8.3.9. Human Population 8.4. Snow and Ice Climates 8.4.1. Snow Climates 8.4.1.1. Continental Subarctic Regions 8.4.1.2. Humid Continental Regions 8.4.1.3. Extreme Daylight and Darkness 8.4.1.4. Terrain of Snow Climates 8.4.2. Ice Climates 8.4.2.1. Marine Subarctic Climate 8.4.2.2. Tundra Climate 8.4.2.3. Icecap Climate 8.4.2.3.1. Greenland 8.4.2.3.2. The Antarctic 8.4.2.3.3. Sea Ice on the Arctic Ocean 8.4.2.4. Terrain 8.4.2.4.1. Shrub Tundra 8.4.2.4.2. Wooded Tundra 8.4.2.4.3. Bogs 8.4.3. Vegetation 8.4.4. Animal Life 8.4.4.1. Caribou and Reindeer 8.4.4.2. Other Animals 8.4.4.3. Poor in Species but Rich in Numbers 8.4.4.4. Bird Life 8.4.5. Insect life 8.4.5.1. Freshwater Fish 8.4.5.2. Lack of Animal Population in the Antarctic 8.4.6. Human Population 9. Open Seas 9.1. Seas are a Large Percentage of the Earth’s Surface 9.2. Seas are Geographically Aligned along Distinct Boundaries 9.2.1. The Coral Sea 9.2.2. The Bearing Sea 9.2.3. Partially Enclosed Bodies of Water 9.3. Ocean Climatic Conditions 9.3.1. Currents 9.3.2. Low Pressure Creates Storms Seen From Afar 9.3.3. Heavy Showers are Common near Inter-Tropical Fronts 9.3.4. The Influence of Ocean Currents on Climate 9.3.4.1. The Humbolt 9.3.4.2. The Labrador Current 9.3.4.3. Warm Currents in the Caribbean Sea 9.3.4.4. Mild Climates in Northern Europe 9.4. Procuring Drinking Water on the Open Seas 9.4.1. Collecting Rainwater for Later Use 9.4.2. Drink Only Conventional Water 9.5. Shelter for Open Seas 9.6. Life Forms 9.7. Traveling on Open Seas 9.7.1. Currents 9.7.2. Winds 9.7.3. Waves 9.7.4. Tides 9.7.4.1. Saltwater Crocodile 9.7.4.2. Reef Fishes 9.7.4.3. Coral 9.7.4.4. Visibility by Passing Ships 9.7.5. Early Considerations for Ditching 9.7.5.1. Preparation for Ditching 9.7.5.2. Bracing for Impact 9.7.5.3. Egress the Aircraft 9.7.5.4. Launching the Life rafts 9.7.5.5. Manual Activation of Liferafts 9.7.5.6. Activating Liferafts with Burning Fuel 9.7.5.7. The Chain-Up 9.7.5.8. The Five A’s 9.7.5.8.1. Best Technique for Water Rescue 9.7.5.8.2. Approaching the IP from Behind 9.7.5.8.3. Salvaging Debris 9.7.5.8.4. Checking Rafts for Leaks and Inflation 9.7.5.8.5. Monitoring the Physical Condition of the IP 9.7.5.8.6. Signaling Equipment 9.7.5.8.7. Keeping Items Dry 9.7.5.8.8. Securing Raft Repair Plugs 9.7.5.8.9. The Special Aspect of the Open Sea Environment 9.7.5.8.10. Senior Ranking IPs Responsibility at Sea 9.7.5.8.11. Conserving Resources 9.7.5.8.12. Maintaining a Positive Mental Attitude 9.7.5.8.13. Rescue at Sea is a Cooperative Effort 9.7.5.8.14. Maintaining Records in a Permissive Environment 9.8. Physical Considerations 9.8.1. Anti-Exposure Garments 9.8.1.1. HELP Body Position 9.8.1.2. Huddling 9.9. Life Preserver Use 9.9.1. Using Clothing as a Flotation Device 9.9.2. Swimming with a Life Preserver 9.9.2.1. Inflating the Life Preserver 9.9.2.2. Swimming Strokes 9.10. Raft Procedures 9.10.1. One-Man Raft 9.10.1.1. Taking Advantage of the Wind 9.10.1.2. Using the Lanyard 9.10.1.3. Boarding the Raft with an Arm Injury 9.10.1.4. Boarding the Raft in Rough Seas 9.10.1.5. Using the Sea Anchor to Adjust the Rate of Travel 9.10.2. Seven-Man Raft 9.10.2.1. The Boarding Ladder 9.10.2.2. Manual Inflation of the Raft 9.10.3. Sailing a Raft into the Wind 9.10.4. Liferaft: 7-Man 9.10.5. Liferafts: 20, 25, and 46-Man 9.11. Making Landfall 9.11.1. Clouds can Help Determine Land Location 9.11.2. Appearance of Sky can Help Determine Land Location 9.11.3. Appearance of Ice Fields can Help Determine Land Location 9.11.4. Color of Water can Help Determine Land Location 9.11.5. Fog, Mist, or Rain can Help Determine Land Location 9.11.6. Birds can Help Determine Land Location 9.11.7. Wave Patterns can Help Determine Land Location 9.11.8. Securing Equipment before Landfall is Essential 9.12. Methods of Getting Ashore 9.12.1. Swimming Ashore 9.12.1.1. Using Small Waves to Assist the IP 9.12.1.2. What to do if Caught in an Undertow 9.12.1.3. Grasping 9.12.1.4. Crossing a Rocky Reef 9.12.2. Rafting Ashore 9.12.2.1. Preparing for Landfall 9.12.2.2. Handling the Raft in a Medium Surf with No Wind 9.12.2.3. Landing the Raft on a Beach 9.12.2.4. Landing a Raft on Sea-Ice 10. Local People 10.1. Contact with People 10.1.1. Respecting Unknown (Local) People 10.1.2. Thoughtful Contact with Local People 10.1.3. Displaying Patience when Contacting Local People 10.2. IP Behavior 10.2.1. Non-Verbal Communication of Local People 10.2.2. Learning the Rules of Local People 10.2.3. Exercising Caution with Local People 10.2.4. Hospitality 10.2.5. Respecting Privacy 10.3. Political Allegiance 10.3.1. Norms of Interaction with Local People 10.4. Population in Built-Up Areas 10.4.1. Determination of Friendly and Un-Friendly Local People 10.4.2. Human Terrain 10.5. Summary 11. Proper Body Temperature 11.1. Optimum Core Temperature 11.1.1. Exposure to Extreme Temperatures 11.1.2. Wind Increase the Chill Effect 11.2. Water as a an Effective Way to Transfer Body Heat 11.3. Factors Which Affect Survival Time 11.3.1. Predicted Survival Time 11.4. Factors that can Transfer Body Heat 11.4.1. Radiation as the Primary Cause of Heat Loss 11.4.2. Conduction 11.4.3. Handling of Liquid Fuel at Low Temperatures is Dangerous 11.4.4. Convection 11.4.5. Evaporation 11.4.6. Respiration 12. Clothing 12.1. Protection 12.2. Clothing Materials 12.2.1. Natural Materials 12.2.2. Synthetic Materials 12.2.2.1. Nylon 12.2.2.2. Synthetic Fibers 12.2.2.3. Protecting Synthetic Fibers 12.2.3. Types of Insulation 12.2.3.1. Natural Insulation 12.2.3.1.1. Down Insulation 12.2.3.1.2. Cattail Plants 12.2.3.1.3. Leaves from Deciduous Trees 12.2.3.1.4. Grass and Mosses 12.2.3.2. Synthetic Insulation 12.2.3.2.1. Polyesters and Acrylics 12.2.3.2.2. Nylon Parachute Material 12.3. Insulation Measurement 12.3.1. The Clo Value 12.3.2. When Less Insulation is Needed 12.3.3. When Shelter is Mandatory for Sustaining Life 12.3.4. The Affect of Physical Build on Temperature Endurance 12.3.5. The Air Force Clothing Inventory 12.3.6. Clo Value Per Fabric Layer 12.3.6.1. Dressing Layers for Added Protection 12.3.7. Using Layers for IPs Sleeping System 12.3.8. Body Parts that Need Greater Protection 12.3.8.1. Thermogram of Heat Loss Explained 12.4. Clothing Wear in Snow and Ice Areas 12.4.1. Avoid Restricting Circulation 12.4.2. Prevent Perspiration by Opening Clothing 12.4.3. Keep Clothing as Dry as Possible 12.4.4. Keep Moving 12.4.5. Arrange Spare Clothing Loosely 12.4.6. Use Wool as a Protective Inner Layer 12.4.7. Keep Head and Ears Covered 12.4.8. Using the Hood to Funnel Radiant Heat 12.4.9. Other Headgear 12.4.10. Eye Protection 12.4.11. Wool Gloves 12.4.12. Adding Insulation to Foot Wear 12.4.13. Felt Booties and Mukluks 12.4.14. Parachute Material in Extreme Cold 12.4.15. Sleeping Systems 12.4.15.1. Extra Insulation for Sleeping Bags 12.5. Clothing in the Summer Arctic 12.5.1. Head Nets 12.5.1.1. Protection when a Head Net is Not Available 12.5.2. Gloves to Protect Against Mosquitoes 12.5.3. Clothing Protection against Mosquitoes 12.6. Clothing at Sea 12.6.1. Decreasing the Cooling Effects of the Wind 12.6.2. Keeping the Floor of the Raft Dry If Possible 12.6.3. Exercising to Restore Circulation 12.6.4. Generating Heat through Shivering 12.6.5. Providing Water to those Suffering from Exposure 12.7. Anti-exposure Garments 12.7.1. Quick-Donning Anti-Exposure Flying Coverall 12.7.2. The Coverall 12.7.3. The Constant Wear Exposure Suit 12.8. Warm Oceans 12.9. Tropical Climates 12.9.1. Protection when Moving through Vegetation 12.9.2. Wear Loose Clothing as Protection from the Sun 12.9.3. Headgear to Protect Against Insects 12.9.4. Headgear to Protect Against Sunburn 12.10. Dry Climates 12.10.1. Protective Clothing in Dry Climates 12.10.2. Emulating Local People’s Clothing 12.10.3. Neckpiece for Sun Protection 12.11. Care of the Feet 12.11.1. Air Force Mukluks 12.11.1.1. Mukluk Liners 12.11.2. Using Grass to Construct Inner Soles 12.11.3. Improvising Foot Gear 12.11.4. Gaiters 12.11.5. The Hudson Bay Duffel Bag 12.11.6. Making Improvised Socks 12.11.7. Double Socks 13. Shelter 13.1. Shelter Considerations 13.1.1. Time 13.1.2. Weather 13.1.2.1. Temperature 13.1.2.2. Wind 13.1.2.3. Precipitation 13.1.3. Life Forms 13.1.3.1. Personal Discomfort from Insects 13.1.3.2. Issues with Animals near a Shelter Site 13.1.3.3. Hazardous Plants 13.1.4. Terrain 13.2. Principles of Shelter Locations and Types 13.2.1. Determining Purpose of the Shelter 13.2.2. Shelter Specifications 13.2.2.1. Remembering Pitch and Tightness to Protect Against Rain and Snow 13.2.2.2. Collecting the Necessary Materials 13.2.2.3. Site Preparation 13.2.2.4. Beginning with the Framework 13.3. Types of Shelters 13.3.1. Immediate Action Shelters 13.3.1.1. Existing Shelters 13.3.1.2. Using a Multi-Person Raft for Shelter 13.3.2. Sleeping Bag 13.3.3. Improvised Shelters 13.3.3.1. A-Frame 13.3.3.1.1. Materials Needed 13.3.3.1.2. Assembling the Framework 13.3.3.1.3. Application of Fabric 13.3.3.2. Lean-To 13.3.3.2.1. Materials Needed 13.3.3.2.2. Assembling the Framework 13.3.3.2.3. Application of Fabric 13.3.3.3. Raised Platform Shelter 13.3.3.3.1. Example 13.3.3.3.2. Using Trees to Help Build Shelters 13.3.3.4. Paraplatform 13.3.3.5. Hammocks 13.3.3.6. Debris Nest as a Sleeping System 13.3.3.6.1. Debris Nest 13.3.3.6.2. Dry Materials as Insulation 13.3.3.7. Tepee, 0 to 9-Pole 13.3.3.7.1. Materials Needed 13.3.3.7.2. Assembling the Framework 13.3.3.7.3. Application of Fabric 13.3.3.8. Tepee, 1–Pole 13.3.3.8.1. Materials Needed 13.3.3.8.2. Construction 13.3.3.9. Tepee, No-Pole 13.3.3.10. Sod Shelter 13.4. Shelter for Tropical Areas 13.4.1. Cover to Protect from Smoke 13.4.2. Fires to Protect from Insects 13.4.3. Shelter from Dampness in the Jungle 13.4.4. Rain Shelter 13.5. Shelters for Hot and Dry Climates 13.5.1. Natural Shelter 13.5.2. Using Vegetation as Shade 13.5.3. Materials Used in Constructing Desert Shelters 13.5.4. Avoid Dense Materials when Making Shelters 13.5.5. Proximity of Material from IP 13.5.6. Aircraft or Vehicle Parts 13.5.7. Multilayered Desert Shelter 13.5.8. Placement of the Shelter Floor to Increase Cooling Effect 13.5.9. Movable Sides 13.5.10. Using Light Colored Material in Warmer Areas 13.5.11. Using Multiple Layers of Material in Cooler Areas 13.5.12. Location of Shelter in Hot Deserts 13.5.13. Location of Shelters near Dunes 13.5.14. Time of Day for Building a Shelter 13.6. Shelters for Snow and Ice Areas 13.6.1. Barren Lands 13.6.1.1. Molded Snow Dome or Quinzee 13.6.1.2. Snow Cave 13.6.1.3. Fighter Trench 13.7. Tree-Line Areas 13.7.1. Sufficient Natural Shelter in Tree Covered Areas 13.7.1.1. Thermal A-Frame 13.7.1.2. Double Lean-To 13.7.1.3. Fan 13.7.1.4. Willow Frame 13.7.1.5. Tree Well 13.7.2. Thermal Principles and Insulation 13.7.3. Snow Caves as Shelter 13.7.4. Conditions when Aircraft Should Not be Used as Shelter 13.8. General Construction Techniques 13.8.1. Construction of Thermal Shelters 13.8.2. Constructing Barren Land-Type Shelters 13.8.3. Dressing Appropriately While Constructing Shelters 13.8.4. Position of Opening 13.8.5. Cutting Snow Blocks 13.8.6. Using a Digging Tool in the Event of Snowfall 13.9. Arctic or Cold Weather Shelter Living Considerations 13.9.1. Limit Shelter Entrances 13.9.2. Personal Hygiene in Snow Shelter Living 13.10. Summer Considerations for Arctic and Arctic-Like Areas 13.11. Maintenance and Improvements 13.11.1. Indian Lacing 13.11.2. Insulation Beds 13.11.2.1. Ground Insulation 13.11.2.2. Making a Bed 13.11.2.3. Bough Bed 13.11.2.4. Spruce Boughs 13.11.3. Outer Clothing as Mattress Material 13.11.4. Maintaining the Bag for Maximum Warmth 13.11.5. Keeping Moisture from Sleeping Bag 13.11.6. Exercising in the Shelter to Keep Warm 14. Firecraft 14.1. Considerations 14.2. Elements of Fire 14.2.1. Preparing for Firecraft 14.2.2. Three Categories of Fuels Used for Firecraft 14.2.2.1. Tinder 14.2.2.2. Kindling 14.2.2.3. Fuel 14.3. Fire Site Preparation 14.3.1. Building a Platform for a Fire Site 14.3.2. Rocks for the Purpose of Holding the Platform 14.3.3. Getting the Most of Warmth from a Fire 14.3.4. Fire Fuel Organization 14.4. Firecraft Tips 14.4.1. Matches 14.4.2. Preserving Dry Tinder 14.4.3. Difficulty of Building Fires in the Arctic Environment 14.4.4. Platform for Fire 14.4.5. Ignition Source 14.5. Fire Making with Matches (or Lighter) 14.5.1. Arranging Kindling 14.5.2. Using a Shave Stick 14.5.3. Small Pieces of Wood to Assist with Kindling 14.5.4. Fire Bundles 14.5.5. Keeping the Fire Bundle Alive 14.6. Heat Sources 14.6.1. Flint and Steel 14.6.1.1. Using Iron Pyrite and Quartz if Flint is Unavailable 14.6.1.2. Scratching Flint with a Knife-Blade to Create a Spark 14.6.2. Batteries 14.6.2.1. Fine Grade Steel Wool 14.6.3. Magnifying Glass 14.6.4. Flashlight Reflector 14.6.5. Bamboo Fire Saw 14.6.5.1. Bamboo Joints 14.6.5.2. Tinder 14.6.5.3. Finely Shredded and Fluffed Tinder 14.6.5.4. Bamboo Pick 14.6.5.5. Using the Pick to Push the Embers Toward the Timber 14.6.5.6. Slowly Add Kindling 14.6.5.7. Bow and Drill 14.6.5.8. Constructing a Bow 14.6.5.9. Fireboard 14.6.5.10. How to use a Fireboard 14.6.5.11. The Bow String 14.6.5.12. Placing the Burning Tinder 14.6.6. The Fire Thong 14.6.6.1. Using Wire as a Fire Thong 14.7. Other Methods of Fire Starting 14.7.1. Flares 14.7.2. Fire Starters in Emergency Kits 14.7.3. Plastic Items 14.7.4. Adding Fuel to Tinder 14.7.5. Improvising a Stove to Burn Refined Petroleum 14.8. Burning Aircraft/Vehicle Fuel 14.8.1. Improvising a Stove to Burn Lubricating Oil 14.8.2. Using Wick 14.8.3. Making a Stove out of a Waxed Carton 14.8.4. Burning Seal Blubber 14.9. Fire Lays 14.9.1. Tepee 14.9.2. Log Cabin 14.9.3. Long Fire 14.9.4. Pyramid Fire 14.9.5. Star Fire 15. Equipment 15.1. Issued Equipment 15.1.1. Electronic Equipment 15.1.1.1. Speaking into a Microphone in a Cold Environment 15.1.1.2. Exercising Caution when Using Radios in a Cold Environment 15.1.1.3. Keeping Electronics Dry in a Wet Environment 15.1.1.4. Care of Batteries in an Extreme Heat Environment 15.1.2. Firearms 15.1.3. Cutting Tools 15.1.3.1. Control of a Cutting Tool 15.1.3.2. Sharpening Knives with a Stone Removes the Steel 15.1.3.3. Sharpening a Knife Using a Stone (Draw) 15.1.3.4. Sharpening a Knife Using a Stone (Circular) 15.1.3.5. Natural Whetstone 15.1.3.6. A Sharp Axe Saves Time and Energy 15.1.3.7. Using a File to Sharpen and Axe or Hatchet 15.1.3.8. How to Cut a Tree with an Axe 15.1.3.9. Care in Preserving the Axe Handle 15.1.3.10. Removing a Broken Axe Handle 15.1.3.11. Improvising a New Handle 15.1.4. Knife Use 15.1.4.1. Using a Knife to Cut Wood 15.1.4.2. Using the Thumb to Steady the Hand 15.1.5. Felling Trees 15.1.5.1. Making Two Cuts 15.1.5.2. IP Should Be Careful of Falling Trees 15.1.5.3. Preventing Damage and Physical Injury 15.1.6. Improvised Equipment 15.1.6.1. Five Basic Rules of Improvising 15.1.6.2. The IP Should Have a Plan 15.1.6.3. Ways to Meet IP Equipment Needs 15.1.7. Manufacturing Equipment 15.2. Parachute 15.2.1. The Pilot Chute 15.2.2. Parachute Canopy 15.2.3. Suspension Lines 15.2.4. The Parachute as a Resource 15.2.4.1. Obtaining the Suspension Lines 15.2.4.2. Obtaining all Available Suspension Lines 15.2.4.3. Maximum Canopy Usage 15.2.4.4. Having the Necessary Material to Improvise 15.2.4.5. Sewing Improvised Equipment 15.2.4.5.1. Places to Obtain Thread 15.2.4.5.2. Making Needles of Bone or Wood 15.2.4.5.3. Sewing with Fur 15.2.4.5.4. Knotting the Thread to Fabric 15.2.4.5.5. Backstitch 15.2.4.5.6. Whipstitch 15.2.4.5.7. Difficult to Sew Material 15.3. Other Improvised Equipment 15.3.1. Improvised Trail-Type Snowshoes 15.3.2. Improvised Bear Paw-Type Snowshoes 15.3.2.1. Guarding Against Frostbite while Snowshoeing 15.3.2.2. Avoiding Blisters Between Toes 15.3.3. Rawhide 15.3.4. Wire Saws 15.3.5. Cooking Utensils 15.4. Ropes and Knots 15.4.1. Basic Knowledge of Tying a Knot 15.4.2. Rope Terminology 15.4.2.1. Bend 15.4.2.2. Bight 15.4.2.3. Hitch 15.4.2.4. Knot 15.4.2.5. Line 15.4.2.6. Loop 15.4.2.7. Overhand Turn or Loop 15.4.2.8. Rope 15.4.2.9. Round Turn 15.4.2.10. Running End 15.4.2.11. Standing End 15.4.2.12. Turn 15.4.2.13. Underhand Turn or Loop 15.4.2.14. Whipping the Ends of a Rope 15.4.3. Knots at End of the Rope 15.4.3.1. Overhand Knot 15.4.3.2. Figure-Eight Knot 15.4.4. Knots for Joining Two Ropes 15.4.4.1. Square