Agricultural Waste to Value-Added Products : Technical, Economic and Sustainable Aspects

This edited book provides a comprehensive review of the current agricultural waste disposal techniques focusing on the ongoing research in the production of various agro waste-derived value-added products. Further topic includes the techno-economic aspects in up-scaling the technology from lab scale to commercial/pilot scale. Sustainable waste management and alternative renewable energy sources are the most important requirements in this era of rapid industrialization and urbanization. Agricultural waste, which is one of the major contributors to overall waste production, has the ability to be an essential source of renewable energy and other valuable products. The ongoing research and technical advancements in agro-waste treatment lead to the efficient conversion of waste into different value-added products. This book is of primary interest to academicians, researchers, scientists and engineers working in the field of agro-residue management, and biomass to bio-energy conversion technologies. Also, the book serves as reading material for students of Environmental Engineering/Civil and Environmental Engineering and Agricultural Engineering. Rural Management authorities, Industrial and Government policy-making agencies may also find it useful read. Foreword Preface Acknowledgments Contents Editors and Contributors 1: Introduction: Growth of Agricultural Waste, Its Disposal, and Related Environmental Issues 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Concept and Generation of Agricultural Waste 1.2.1 Waste from Farming Activities 1.2.2 Waste from Livestock 1.2.3 Waste from Processing 1.3 Characteristics of Agricultural Waste 1.4 Approaches and Hierarchy of Agricultural Waste Management Systems 1.5 Agricultural Waste Management Techniques 1.5.1 Landfilling 1.5.2 Incineration 1.5.3 Composting 1.5.4 Anaerobic Digestion 1.5.5 Pyrolysis and Gasification 1.6 Health and Environmental Impact 1.7 Conclusions References 2: Global Status of Agricultural Waste-Based Industries, Challenges, and Future Prospects 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Agricultural or Agro-Waste 2.2.1 Agricultural Solid Waste Classification 2.2.1.1 Livestock Waste 2.2.1.2 Waste from Food and Meat Processing 2.2.1.3 Waste Generation Through Crop Production 2.2.1.4 On-Farm Medical Waste 2.2.1.5 Waste from Horticulture 2.2.1.6 Waste from Agro-Based Industries 2.2.1.7 Chemical Wastes 2.2.2 Composition of Agro-Waste 2.2.2.1 Cellulose 2.2.2.2 Lignin 2.2.2.3 Hemicellulose 2.2.3 Agro-Waste By-Products 2.2.3.1 Value-Added Products 2.2.3.2 Utilisation of the By-Products 2.3 Cause of Agricultural Waste Production 2.3.1 Agriculture-Related Activities 2.3.2 Poor Road Infrastructure Sustainable Solid Waste Management Techniques 2.3.3 Insufficient or Non-existent Rural Electrification 2.3.4 Improper Drying Processes and Storage Facilities 2.3.5 Food Wasted 2.3.6 Kitchen Waste 2.4 Global Status of Agro-Waste 2.4.1 Overall Population Growth 2.4.2 Medium Variant Population Growth 2.4.3 Effects Due to Rapid Urbanisation 2.5 Management of Agro-Waste 2.5.1 Production 2.5.2 Collection 2.5.3 Transfer 2.5.4 Storage 2.5.5 Treatment 2.5.6 Utilisation 2.6 Challenges of Agro-Waste 2.7 Future Prospects of Agro-Waste 2.7.1 Renewable Energy Resources 2.7.2 Biofertilisers 2.7.3 Soil Amendments 2.7.4 Dye Adsorption 2.7.5 Heavy Metal Adsorption 2.7.6 Energy Recovery from Agro-Waste 2.7.7 Construction Materials from Agro-Waste 2.8 Conclusion References 3: Technoeconomic and Sustainability Analysis of Agricultural Waste Conversion Technologies 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Agricultural Waste: Source for Bioenergy 3.2.1 Major Organic Constituents 3.2.2 Biofuel Production from Agro-Wastes 3.3 Microwave (MW) in Bioenergy Production 3.3.1 Continuous Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis (CMAP) 3.3.2 Limitations and Challenges Involved 3.4 Concept of Circular Bioeconomy 3.4.1 Technoeconomic Analysis of Microwave-Assisted Processes 3.4.2 Life Cycle Assessment of Microwave-Induced Techniques 3.5 Conclusion References 4: Biochemical Approach for Transformation of Agricultural Waste to Bioenergy and Other Value-Added Products Through the Bioel... 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Agro-Waste Sources as Raw Material 4.3 Applications of Different Agro-Waste Materials 4.3.1 Production of Bioenergy from Different Agro-Waste 4.3.2 Other Biochemicals ́ Recovery 4.4 Traditional Agro-Waste Conversion Technologies 4.4.1 Biochemical Conversion 4.4.1.1 Anaerobic Digestion 4.4.1.2 Fermentation 4.4.2 Thermochemical Conversion 4.4.2.1 Direct Combustion 4.4.2.2 Pyrolysis 4.4.2.3 Gasification 4.4.2.4 Liquefaction 4.5 Agro-Waste Conversion Through Bioelectrochemical Systems 4.5.1 Other Applications of Agro-Waste-Derived Products in BES 4.6 Recommendation and Future Scope 4.7 Conclusions References 5: Energy-Efficient Bioelectrochemical System for Treatment of Agricultural Wastes and Wastewater: Mechanism, Scope, and Chall... 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Mechanism Behind Different Bioelectrochemical Systems Applicable in the Field of Agro-Based Industries ́ Effluents 5.2.1 Microbial Fuel Cell (MFC) 5.2.2 Microbial Electrolysis Cell 5.2.3 Microbial Electrosynthesis Cell 5.2.4 Microbial Solar Cells 5.2.5 Plant Microbial Fuel Cells 5.3 Sources of Agro-Wastes from Different Industries and their Treatment with Different Types of BESs 5.3.1 Brewery Industry 5.3.2 Dairy Industry 5.3.3 Edible Oil Industry 5.3.4 Sugar Industry 5.3.5 Coffee Processing Industry 5.3.6 Textile Industry 5.3.7 Rice and Wheat Mill Industry 5.4 Challenges or Limitations in Proper Functioning of These Bioelectrochemical Systems 5.5 Ways to Make BES Effective and Commercialisable 5.6 Future Recommendations 5.7 Conclusion References 6: Microbial Conversion of Agricultural Residues into Organic Fertilizers 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Classification of Biological Waste-Based Fertilizers (Biofertilizers) 6.3 Conversion Technologies of Agricultural Residues for Farming Applications 6.3.1 Composting 6.3.2 Vermicomposting 6.3.3 Anaerobic Digestion 6.3.4 Solid-State Fermentation (SSF) 6.4 Microbes Involved in Waste Conversion Processes 6.5 Value-Added Products and Their Nutritional Importance 6.5.1 Compost 6.5.2 Vermicompost 6.5.3 Digestate 6.5.4 Biofertilizer 6.6 Trends and Prospects 6.7 Conclusions References 7: Thermochemical Approach for Sustainable Transformation of Agricultural Waste into Value-Added End Products 7.1 Overview of Agricultural Waste 7.2 Conversion Technologies 7.2.1 Torrefaction 7.2.2 Pyrolysis 7.2.3 Gasification 7.2.4 Hydrothermal Carbonization 7.3 Advanced Thermochemical Processes 7.3.1 Use of Microwave 7.3.2 Integrated Biochemical and Thermochemical Processes 7.4 Conclusions and Perspectives References 8: Advances in Thermochemical Valorization of Agricultural Waste 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Sources and Composition of Agricultural Waste 8.1.2 Characterization of Various Types of Agricultural Waste 8.2 Existing Thermochemical Conversion Technologies 8.2.1 Pyrolysis/Torrefaction 8.2.2 Gasification 8.2.3 Hydrothermal Treatment 8.2.4 Incineration 8.3 Advanced Thermochemical Processes 8.3.1 Use of Microwave 8.3.2 Integrated Biochemical and Thermochemical Processes 8.3.3 Thermal Digestion Technique 8.4 Summary and Conclusions References 9: Conversion of Agricultural Waste with Variable Lignocellulosic Characteristics into Biochar and Its Application 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Agriculture Waste Generation Phases 9.2.1 Pre-harvesting Phase 9.2.2 Harvesting Phase 9.2.3 Post-harvesting Phase 9.3 Environmental Impacts of Agricultural Waste 9.3.1 Water Pollution 9.3.2 Air Pollution 9.3.3 Soil Pollution 9.4 Legal Rules and Regulation of Agricultural Wastes 9.5 Elements of Lignocellulosic Composition 9.5.1 Cellulose (C6H10O5)n 9.5.2 Hemicellulose (C5H4O8)m 9.5.3 Lignin (C9H10O3(OCH3)0.9-1.7)x 9.6 Parameters Influencing Biomass Composition 9.6.1 Soil Type and Geographical Location 9.6.2 With the Age of the Plant 9.6.3 Climate Condition 9.6.4 Parts of Biomass Plants and Species 9.7 Utilization of Agricultural Waste 9.7.1 Pyrolysis 9.7.2 Composting 9.7.3 Methane Production 9.7.4 Soil Reclamation 9.8 Physical Treatment Methods 9.8.1 Pyrolysis 9.8.2 Gasification 9.8.3 Hydrothermal Carbonization 9.9 Pyrolysis of Lignocellulosic Material into Biochar 9.10 Characterization Techniques of Biochar 9.10.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TG) 9.10.2 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) Analysis 9.10.3 Chemical Analysis 9.10.4 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 9.10.5 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 9.10.6 X-Ray Diffraction Measurements 9.11 Influence of Lignocellulosic Composition on Pore Formation 9.12 Application of Biochar (Fig. 9.4) 9.12.1 Soil Application 9.12.2 Contaminant Removal from Water and Wastewater 9.12.3 Electrode Material 9.13 Summary References 10: Agricultural Waste-Based Biochar for Soil Carbon Sequestration and Emission Reduction: Preparation, Evaluation, Applicatio... 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Preparation of Agricultural Waste-Based Biochar (AWB) 10.3 Common Biochar Modification Methods for Improved Fixation of GHG 10.3.1 Physical Method 10.3.2 Chemical Modification 10.3.3 Biological Modification 10.4 Evaluation of Biochar for Soil Carbon Sequestration 10.4.1 The Capacity of AWB for Carbon Sequestration in Soil 10.4.2 The Assessment Methods of CSER Capacity of Biochar 10.5 Biochar ́s Ability for Soil Carbon Sequestration 10.5.1 Original Biochar 10.5.2 Activated/Modified Biochar 10.6 The Mechanisms Associated with Carbon Sequestration in Soil by Biochar 10.7 Factors that Impact Soil Carbon Sequestration Ability of Biochar 10.7.1 Properties of Biochar 10.7.2 Soil Properties 10.7.3 Nutrient Management 10.8 Conclusion and Outlook References 11: Contemporary Approaches for Biochar Production from Agro-Waste and Its Current and Prognostic Applications in Environment ... 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Feedstock Availability and Characteristics 11.3 Pyrolysis Methods for Biochar Production 11.4 Applications of Biochar 11.4.1 Biochar as a Nutrient Source 11.4.2 Effect of Biochar on Soil Microbial Structure 11.4.3 Effect of Biochar on Suppressing Plant Diseases 11.4.4 Case Studies on Suppression of Plant Diseases Using Biochar 11.4.5 Mechanism of Biochar on Organic Content in Soil Structure 11.4.6 Influencing Parameters of Biochar on Organic Content in Soil Structure 11.4.7 Effect of Biochar on Soil Enzymes 11.4.8 Effect of Biochar on Microbial Diversity 11.5 Future Directions and Prospects 11.6 Summary and Outlook References 12: Valorization of Sugarcane Bagasse Fly Ash Into a Low-Cost Adsorbent Material for Removal of Heavy Metals: A Review 12.1 Introduction 12.1.1 Sugarcane Bagasse Fly Ash 12.1.2 Composition of BFA 12.1.3 Applications of BFA 12.1.3.1 Construction Industry 12.1.3.2 BFA as an Adsorbent 12.1.3.3 Other Applications 12.2 Synthesis of Zeolite from Bagasse Fly Ash 12.2.1 Application of Synthesized Zeolite in Heavy Metal Removal 12.3 Conclusions References 13: Extraction of Lignin from Various Agricultural Biomass: Its Characterization and Applications 13.1 Importance of Lignin Extraction 13.2 Pretreatment of Agro-Waste 13.2.1 Physical Pretreatment 13.2.2 Chemical Pretreatment 13.2.3 Physicochemical Pretreatment 13.2.4 Biological Pretreatment 13.3 Methods of Lignin Extraction 13.3.1 High-Boiling Alcohol Solvent Extraction 13.3.2 Organic Solvent Extraction 13.4 Characterization Techniques 13.4.1 Advanced Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 13.4.2 Two-Dimensional Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (HSQC NMR) 13.5 Application of Lignin 13.5.1 Industrial Applications 13.5.2 Agricultural Applications 13.5.3 Medical Applications 13.5.3.1 Lignin in Wound-Healing Dressings 13.5.3.2 Lignin in Diabetes Treatment 13.5.3.3 Lignin-Based Material as Carrier and Delivery System 13.5.3.4 Application of Lignin and Its Derivatives in Antiviral and Anticancer 13.6 Conclusion and Prospect References 14: Rice Husk: From Agro-Industrial to Modern Applications 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Applications of RH in Agricultural Industry 14.2.1 Biocontrol Agents 14.2.2 Soil Fertility Improvement 14.2.3 Mushroom Production 14.2.4 Mulching 14.3 Applications in Food and Feed Industry 14.4 Applications in Environment Development 14.4.1 Remediation of Soil 14.4.2 Water Treatment Industry 14.4.3 Removal of Dye 14.4.4 Fuel 14.4.5 Other Energy Resources 14.5 Applications in Construction Materials 14.5.1 Ceramics Production 14.5.2 Concrete Production 14.5.3 Brick Industry 14.6 Applications in Pharmacy and Medicine 14.7 Nanobiotechnology Applications of RH 14.8 Economic Impact 14.9 Concluding Remarks and Prospects References 15: Production and Application of Nanomaterials from Agricultural Waste 15.1 Synthesis of Nanomaterials from Agro-wastes 15.1.1 Conversion Process of Agricultural Waste to Carbonized Materials 15.1.1.1 CNs 15.1.1.2 GO and CNTs 15.1.1.3 Activated Carbon/Biochar 15.1.2 Conversion Process of Agricultural Waste to Non-carbonized Materials 15.1.2.1 Nanocellulose 15.1.2.2 Carbon Quantum Dots 15.2 Characterization of Nanomaterials From Agricultural Waste 15.2.1 Technique of Microscope 15.2.1.1 Electron Microscope SEM TEM Other Electron Microscopy Techniques 15.2.1.2 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 15.2.2 Techniques of Spectroscopy 15.2.2.1 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 15.2.2.2 Raman Scattering (RS) 15.2.3 Techniques for Thermal Analysis 15.2.3.1 DTA 15.2.3.2 DSC 15.2.3.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TG) 15.2.4 Other Technologies 15.2.4.1 X-ray Diffraction 15.2.4.2 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 15.2.4.3 Electrophoretic Light Scattering (ELS) 15.2.4.4 Brunel-Emmett-Taylor 15.3 Potential Applications of Agro-waste-Based Nanoparticles 15.3.1 Applications of Agro-waste-Based Nanoparticles in Energy 15.3.1.1 Energy Storage CNM-Based Lithium (Li)-Ion Battery CNM-Based SCs 15.3.1.2 CNMs to Product Hydrogen Graphyne Covalent Organic Frameworks (COFs) Transition Metal Carbon/MXene 15.3.2 Applications of Agro-waste-Based Nanoparticles in Medicine 15.3.2.1 CNMs as Drug/Gene Carrier Drug Carrier Gene Carrier 15.3.2.2 Applications of CNMs in Bioimaging Bioimaging Agent MRI Agents 15.3.2.3 Applications in Cardiovascular Therapy Drug/Biomolecule Delivery Biological Sensor 15.3.3 Applications of Agro-waste-Based Nanoparticle Aviation Sector 15.3.3.1 Research Status of CNM-Reinforced Structural Composites Layered Stack Structure Directed Structures 3D Network 15.3.3.2 Research Status of CNMs in the Field of Electromagnetic Shielding 15.4 Application of Nanomaterials From Agricultural Waste for Agricultural Wastewater Treatment 15.4.1 Carbon Nanotubes 15.4.2 Carbon Nanofibers 15.4.3 Graphene 15.4.4 Activated Carbon 15.4.5 Nanocellulose References 16: Agricultural Waste as a Source of Fine Chemicals 16.1 Introduction 16.1.1 Potential Use of Agri-Waste Sources 16.2 Chemical Composition of Agricultural Waste 16.2.1 Cellulose 16.2.2 Hemicellulose 16.2.3 Lignin 16.2.4 Collagen 16.2.5 Keratin 16.3 Fine Chemicals and Their Potential Uses 16.3.1 Potential Uses of Fine Chemicals 16.3.1.1 Pharmaceutical Drugs 16.3.1.2 Food Application 16.3.1.3 Agricultural and Fertilizer Application 16.3.1.4 Alkaloids 16.4 Synthesis Routes of Fine Chemicals from Agricultural Waste 16.4.1 Physical Refining 16.4.2 Chemical Synthesis 16.4.3 Biochemical Process 16.5 Recent Improvements in Conversion Technologies 16.5.1 Chemical Synthesis 16.5.2 Biotechnology 16.5.3 Synthetic Bioengineering 16.5.4 Extraction 16.5.5 Hydrolysis 16.5.6 Biorefining Conversion Technologies 16.5.7 Electro-Conversion Synthesis 16.6 Commercialization Opportunities 16.7 Conclusion References 17: Centralized Approach for the Agricultural Waste-Based Industry 17.1 Background 17.2 Agricultural Waste or Agro-Waste (AW) 17.3 Composition of Agricultural Wastes 17.3.1 Wastes from Farming Activities 17.3.2 Waste from Animal Production 17.3.3 Waste from Aquaculture 17.4 System of Agricultural Waste Management (AWMS) 17.5 Agro-Industrial Waste Types 17.5.1 Agricultural Residues 17.5.2 Industrial Byproducts 17.6 Utilization of Agricultural and Industrial Wastes 17.7 Centralized Approach for Agricultural Waste 17.7.1 The Positive Aspects of Centralized Control 17.7.2 Drawbacks of An Overly Centralized System 17.8 Treatment of Agro Wastes 17.9 Challenges and Perspectives for Future Research 17.10 Conclusions References 18: Decentralized Composting and Vermicomposting for Agricultural Waste Management: Recycle at Source 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Agricultural Wastes to Wealth 18.3 Composting Technology 18.4 Decentralized Composting and Vermicomposting 18.5 Major Challenges in Field Implementation 18.6 Agribusiness 18.7 Conclusion References