Affirming Language Diversity in Schools and Society: Beyond Linguistic Apartheid (Routledge Research in Education)

Language is perhaps the most common issue that surfaces in debates over school reform, and plays a vital role in virtually everything we are involved. This edited volume explores __linguistic apartheid,__ or the disappearance of certain languages through cultural genocide by dominant European colonizers and American neoconservative groups. These groups have historically imposed hegemonic languages, such as English and French, on colonized people at the expense of the native languages of the latter. The book traces this form of apartheid from the colonial era to the English-only movement in the United States, and proposes alternative ways to counter linguistic apartheid that minority groups and students have faced in schools and society at large. Contributors to this volume provide a historical overview of the way many languages labeled as inferior, minority, or simply savage have been attacked and pushed to the margins, discriminating against and attempting to silence the voice of those who spoke and continue to speak these languages. Further, they demonstrate the way and the extent to which such actions have affected the cultural life, learning process, identity, and the subjective and material conditions of linguistically and historically marginalized groups, including students. Cover 1 Half Title 2 Title Page 6 Copyright Page 7 Table of Contents 10 List of Tables 14 Foreword 16 Acknowledgments 18 1. Introduction: Linguistic Apartheid No Más—Honoring All Languages 20 Examining Linguistic Apartheid through Anticolonial and Anti-Imperialist Lenses 21 The English Only Movement: A Neocolonial form of Linguistic Domination 25 Resisting Linguistic Apartheid: Toward a Just and Multilingual Society 28 Book Organization 31 Overview of Chapters 32 Part I 32 Part II 33 Part III 34 Conclusion 36 References 37 Part I: Linguistic Apartheid in the United States: From the Colonial to the Neocolonial Era 40 2. 21st Century Linguistic Apartheid: English Language Learners in Arizona Public Schools 42 Introduction 42 Anti-Immigrant Ideologies and the English Language Development Block 43 The Historical Origins of the English Language Development Block 44 Flores v. Arizona 44 Consent Order 45 Legislative Reaction 46 A Reconstituted State Policy Focus for ELLs: Revised Curriculum and Instruction 46 Higher Court Involvement and the Equal Educational Opportunity Act 47 Supreme Court Intervention 47 Justifying Segregation 48 The Postcolonial Nature of the ELD Blocks 49 Educational Deprivation of English Learners in the ELD Block 50 Notes 51 References 52 3. Cultural Hegemony, Language, and the Politics of Forgetting: Interrogating Restrictive Language Policies 54 Linguistic Genocide 55 Restrictive Language Policies 58 Language and Material Interests 63 Language, Ideology, and Schoooling 66 Beyond the Culture of Forgetting 69 Notes 70 References 70 4. Reclaiming the Taino Legacy: Issues of Language, Culture, and Identity 73 Taino Legacy 73 Tainos the “Good People” and the “Brave Warriors” 75 Issues of Language, Culture, and Transformative Pedagogy—The Intrinsic Maze of Language and Self 77 References 80 5. Overcoming Linguistic Apartheid: Contesting the Raj’s Divide and Rule Policies 82 The Postcolonial Framework 83 Instances of the English–Vernacular Divide: Vernacular-Medium Pedagogic Practices 84 Divergent Standards for English- and Vernacular-Medium Classrooms 86 Bridging English–Vernacular Schisms: Extracurricular Activities Emphasizing Civic Responsibility in Gujarati 88 Bridging the Divide: Institutional Efforts at Opening Doors for Gujarati Dalit Students 90 Pulling Back, Looking Ahead: Implications for LPP 92 References 93 Part II: Beyond Draconian Language Policies: Affirming Language Diversity 94 6. Human Rights, States’ Rights, and Linguistic Apartheid 96 Introduction 96 The Arizonification of America 99 SB 1070-HB 56 99 Examining the Linguistic and Educational Effects of Arizona’s SB 1070 and HB 2162 100 Arizona 100 SB 1070 100 HB 2162 102 Alabama 103 HB 56 103 Public Education 104 Employment 104 Forms of Opposition to HB 56 105 Conclusion 105 Revolutionary Critical Praxis 106 References 111 7. Bite Your Tongue: How the English Only Movement Has Silenced Voices of Dissent 113 Notes 132 References 132 8. Colonial Education in the Southwest: White Supremacy, Cultural and Linguistic Subtraction, and the Struggle for Raza Studies 134 Situating White Supremacy 134 Historical White Supremacy and Mexican Americans 134 Mexican American Children in the Southwest: Cultural and Linguistic Subtraction 136 Current White Supremacist Discourse 139 The Establishment of Ethnic Studies in Arizona 142 White Supremacy (Never) Visits Mexican American Studies—Tucson Unified School District 145 Raza Studies Takes White Supremacy to School: Love and Resistance 146 Conclusion 147 References 148 9. (Dis)Appearance of Deficit: How Teachers Struggle to Serve Multilingual Students under “English Only” 152 A Progressive State—Pushes Ahead for Accountability 153 A Change in Name—Disappearance and Reappearance of Deficit 153 Local Resistance to (In)visibility and Raising Voices Affirming Linguistic Diversity 155 (In)visibility and Institutional Consequences 157 (In)visibility in Increased Participation in Afterschool Ged Courses and Other Access to Education 158 Concluding Points 160 References 162 Part III: In Defense of Language Rights of Minorities: Beyond English Hegemony 164 10. Language Rights for Social Justice: The Case of Immigrant Ethnolinguistic Minorities and Public Education in the United States 166 Introduction 166 Why Immigrant Indigenous and Ethnolinguistic Minorities? 167 Immigration, Language, and Education Policy 170 A Brief Overview 170 Education Research on Indigenous and Ethnolinguistic Minorities 174 Implications for Language Policy and Teaching 177 References 181 11. English for Academic Purposes: A Trojan Horse Bearing the Advance Forces of Linguistic Domination? 184 Introduction 184 EAP and the Global Education Market 186 EAP, Society, and Politics 188 EAP, Education, and Agency 190 Conclusion 191 References 191 12. Beyond Absurdity: Working Past the Repression of Dialogue in U.S. Schools 195 Establishing a Theoretical Base for Educational Dialogue 196 Unpacking and Working through the Repression of Dialogue 199 Encouraging Dialogue 203 References 205 13. Americanization and Englishization as Processes of Global Occupation 207 Terra Nullius and Americanization 208 Global Ideological Americanization 214 Who Decided on a European “Union”? 217 The Global English Project: English a Cultural Terra Nullius? 220 European Resistance 224 Notes 229 References 230 14. The Role of Mother Tongues in the Education of Indigenous, Tribal, Minority, and Minoritized Children: What Can Be Done to Avoid Crimes Against Humanity? 234 Introduction: Why a Focus on the Role of Mother Tongues in Educational Models? 234 Disappearing Linguistic Diversity 234 The Medium of Education Is Decisive for Success or Failure—but Educational Models Need to Be Contextualized 235 Educational Goals and Educational Models 236 Educational Goals 236 Presentation of Educational Model Prototypes 238 Nonmodels and Weak Models 238 Strong Models 239 Results of Various Educational Models 240 Two False Explanations: Common Sense and Parents’ Choice 240 What Research Results Say: Comparing the Models 242 Linguistic Human Rights and ITM Education 248 What Are Linguistic Human Rights? What Can They Do? 248 LHRs in education necessary for group maintenance and for linguistic diversity. 249 Can Submersion Education Be Labeled a Violation against the Right to Education, Linguistic and Cultural Genocide, and a Crime against Humanity? 249 Expert Papers 1 and 2 for the un Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues 250 Crimes Against Humanity? 251 What Language Rights Should Individual Children Have in Education? 252 Recommendations 253 Recommendation 1: The Mother Tongue Should Be the Main Teaching Language for the First Eight Years 256 Recommendation 2: Good Teaching of a Dominant Local or National Language as a Subject 256 Recommendation 3: Transition from MTM Teaching to Using a Dominant Local or National Language as a Teaching Language 257 Recommendation 4: Additional Languages as Subjects 257 Recommendation 5: Context-Sensitive Cultural Content and Methods 257 Recommendation 6: Well-Trained Bi- or Multilingual Teachers 257 Recommendation 7: ITM Parents and Communities and Educational Authorities Need Enough Research- Based Knowledge about Educational Choices. Advocacy for Sound Models Is Necessary 258 Recommendation 8: Systemic Changes in School and Society Are Needed to Increase Access to Quality Education. This Includes Knowledge about How the Present System Harms Humanity 258 Conclusion 259 Linguistic Diversity and Biodiversity 259 Education Is the Most Crucial Input in Fighting Poverty 259 Whereas: 260 Therefore be it Resolved that the Chiefs-in-Assembly: 261 Notes 262 References 263 15. The Colonialism of English Only 269 “English Only” as a form of Colonialism 272 Scientism as Neocolonialism 274 Fracturing Cultural Identities 279 Conclusion 285 Notes 288 16. Affirming Bilingualism and Bi-Literacy: In Defiance of English-Only Laws 291 My Positionality 291 Bilingual Education and Immigrant Students 292 Bilingual Students’ Literacy and Academic Achievement 294 Dual Programs and Bi-Literacy 295 Situating Dual Language Programs in a Larger Educational Context: An Overview 295 Concluding Thoughts 296 References 297 Contributors 300 Index 308 "Language is perhaps the most common issue that surfaces in debates over school reform, and plays a vital role in virtually everything we are involved. This edited volume will explore linguistic apartheid, or the disappearance of certain languages through cultural genocide by dominant European colonizers and American neoconservative groups. These groups have historically imposed hegemonic languages, such as English and French, on colonized people at the expense of the native languages of the latter. The book will trace this form of apartheid from the colonial era to the English-only movement in the United States, and will propose alternative ways to counter linguistic apartheid that minority groups and students have faced in schools and society at large. Contributors to this volume provide a historical overview of the way many languages labeled as inferior, minority, or simply savage have been attacked and pushed to the margins, discriminating against and attempting to silence the voice of those who spoke and continue to speak these languages. Further, they demonstrate the way and the extent to which such actions have affected the cultural life, learning process, identity, and the subjective and material conditions of linguistically and historically marginalized groups, including students."-- Provided by publisher