Aerospace manufacturing processes

Manufacturing processes for aircraft components include broad activities consisting of multiple materials processing technologies. This book focuses on presenting manufacturing process technologies exclusively for fabricating major aircraft components. Topics covered in a total of twenty chapters are presented with a balanced perspective on the relevant fundamentals and various examples and case studies. An individual chapter is aimed at discussing the scope and direction of research and development in producing high strength lighter aircraft materials, and cost effective manufacturing processes are also included. Cover 1 Half Title 2 Title Page 4 Copyright Page 5 Dedication 6 Table of Contents 8 Preface 16 Acknowledgment 20 Author 22 1: Fundamentals of Aerospace Vehicles 24 1.1 Introduction 24 1.2 Aircraft Basics 25 1.2.1 Forces Acting on Aircraft 25 1.2.2 Aerodynamic Principles 27 1.2.3 Major Components of an Aircraft and Their Function 29 1.2.3.1 Fuselage 29 1.2.3.2 Wing 30 1.2.3.3 Empennage 33 1.2.3.4 Engine 34 1.3 Commercial Aircraft Product and History 35 1.4 Military Aircraft Product and History 39 1.5 Space Craft Product and History 44 References 47 2: Fundamentals of Building an Aircraft 48 2.1 Introduction 48 2.2 Market Requirement 50 2.3 Design Requirement 51 2.4 Materials Selection 51 2.5 Manufacturing Phase 54 2.6 Structural Test 57 2.7 Functional Test/Flight Test/Certification/Delivery 60 References 61 3: Major Aircraft Materials and Its Classification 62 3.1 Introduction 62 3.2 Major Aircraft Materials 63 3.2.1 Aluminum 66 3.2.2 Titanium 71 3.2.3 Steel 72 3.2.4 Composite Materials 73 3.3 Fundamentals of Mechanical Behavior and Testing of Metals 75 References 80 4: Manufacturing Principle and Processes of Major Aircraft Metal Products 82 4.1 Introduction 82 4.2 Casting of Ingot or Billet 84 4.2.1 Casting of Aluminum Billet for Extrusion/Forging 85 4.2.2 Billet Geometry 86 4.2.3 Billet Homogenizing 87 4.2.4 Billet Scalping 88 4.2.5 Common Casting Defects 88 4.3 Extrusion 89 4.3.1 Principal Variables 90 4.3.2 Extrusion Pressure 91 4.3.3 Extrusion Force 93 4.3.4 Tribology and Thermodynamics in Extrusion 93 4.3.5 Extrusion Press 95 4.3.6 Extrusion Dies and Tooling 97 4.3.7 Extrusion Die for Solid Shapes 97 4.3.8 Extrusion of Hollow Shapes 100 4.3.9 Extrusion of Aluminum Alloys 102 4.3.10 Common Aluminum Extrusion Defects 105 4.3.11 Economics of Aluminum Extrusion 107 4.3.12 Extrusion of Titanium Alloys 110 4.3.13 Extrusion of Titanium Round Hollow 117 4.4 Forging 118 4.4.1 Open Die Forging 118 4.4.2 Closed Die Forging 120 4.4.3 Roll Forging 122 4.4.4 Forging Variables 123 4.4.5 Aluminum Forging 123 4.4.6 Titanium Forging 124 4.4.7 Common Defects in Forging 125 4.4.8 Residual Stresses in Forging 129 4.5 Rolling 130 4.5.1 Friction Model in Rolling 132 4.5.2 Deformation in Rolling 133 4.5.3 Classification of Rolling Mills 134 4.5.4 Aluminum Sheet and Plate Rolling 135 4.5.5 Titanium Plate Rolling 137 4.5.6 Common Defects in Rolled Products 139 4.6 Fundamentals of Tube Drawing 139 4.6.1 Aluminum Tube Drawing 141 4.6.2 Common Defects in Aluminum Tube Drawing 143 4.7 Fundamentals of Pilgering 144 4.7.1 Seamless Titanium Tube 145 4.8 Seamless Steel Tube 146 4.9 Inspection and Testing of Tubes 147 References 147 5: Introduction to Composite Materials for Aerospace 150 5.1 Introduction 150 5.2 Components in Composite Material 151 5.3 Fibers 152 5.3.1 Glass 153 5.3.2 Kevlar (Aramid) 154 5.3.3 Boron 154 5.3.4 Carbon and Graphite 154 5.3.5 Properties of Fibers 156 5.4 Fabrics 157 5.5 Matrices 160 5.5.1 Classification of Polymer Matrices 162 5.6 Classification of Composites 163 5.7 Lamina 165 5.7.1 Geometrical Properties of Lamina 166 5.8 Laminate 168 5.9 Type of Composites 170 5.9.1 Polymer 170 5.9.2 Hybrid 170 5.9.3 Metal Matrix 171 5.9.4 Ceramic Matrix 171 5.10 Manufacturing Technology of Input Raw Materials for Composite Fabrication 172 5.10.1 Type of Prepregs 173 5.11 Introduction to Manufacturing Processes of Composite Materials 174 5.12 Physical Definition of Materials 174 5.13 Comparison between Composites and Conventional Metals 178 References 180 6: Structural and Operating System Components of an Aircraft 182 6.1 Introduction 182 6.2 Fuselage 182 6.2.1 Doors 188 6.3 Wing 190 6.3.1 Wing Configuration 196 6.4 Stabilizer 198 6.5 Landing Gear 200 6.6 Engine 202 6.7 Major Operating System Components 203 6.7.1 Auxiliary Power Unit 203 6.7.2 Environmental Control System 203 6.7.3 Wing and Stabilizer Control Surfaces 205 6.7.4 Wing High Lift Control Surfaces 206 Reference 210 7: Introduction to Manufacturing Processes of Metal Components of an Aircraft 212 7.1 Introduction 212 7.2 Major Manufacturing Processes in Aerospace 212 7.2.1 Major Forming Processes of Various Metal Products 212 7.2.2 Welding and Joining 215 7.2.3 Metal Cutting and Machining 215 7.2.4 Abrasive Metal Removal and Cutting Processes 215 7.2.5 Chemical Metal Removal and Chemical Processing of Metals 216 7.3 Introduction of Tribology in Manufacturing Processes 216 7.3.1 Surface Topography 218 7.3.2 Role of Friction 219 7.3.2.1 Adhesive Friction 220 7.3.2.2 Plowing Friction 220 7.3.3 Friction Models 222 7.3.4 Lubrication 224 7.3.5 Wear 226 7.3.6 Surface Quality 226 References 227 8: Cold Forming of Flat Sheet 228 8.1 Introduction 228 8.2 Formability Tests for Sheet Metal 229 8.2.1 MBR Test 230 8.2.2 Limiting Dome Height 235 8.2.3 Forming Limit Diagram 236 8.2.4 Effect of Formability in Sheet Metal Forming 239 8.3 Blank Preparation 246 8.3.1 Shearing and Blanking 246 8.3.2 Routing 247 8.4 Brake Forming 247 8.4.1 Bump Forming 250 8.5 Roll Bending 254 8.6 Stretch Forming 255 8.7 Hydro-Press Forming 262 8.8 Progressive Roll Forming 264 8.9 Joggle of Sheet Metal Parts 266 8.10 Deep Draw Hydro Forming 266 8.11 Match Die Press Forming 271 8.12 Spin Forming 272 8.13 Manufacturing Process Steps for Sheet Metal Forming 273 References 275 9: Cold Forming of Plate 276 9.1 Introduction 276 9.2 Bump Forming 278 9.3 Fundamentals of SP Process 280 9.4 Shot Peen Forming 286 9.5 Fundamentals of Laser Shock Peening 288 9.6 Laser Shock Peen Forming 291 References 293 10: Cold Forming of Extrusion 296 10.1 Introduction 296 10.2 Stretch Forming 296 10.3 Stretch Wrap Forming 299 10.4 Roll Contouring 300 10.5 Joggle Forming of Extrusion 304 References 306 11: Hot Forming of Flat Sheet, Plate, and Extrusion 308 11.1 Introduction 308 11.2 Superplastic Forming of Flat Sheet 308 11.3 Diffusion Bonding 312 11.4 Hot Die Forming 316 11.5 Brake Forming 319 11.6 Creep Age Forming 319 11.7 Creep Forming/Hot Straightening 321 11.8 Hot Stretch Forming 322 References 323 12: High Energy Forming and Joining 326 12.1 Introduction 326 12.2 Explosive Forming 326 12.3 Fundamentals of Electromagnetic Forming and Joining 332 12.3.1 Electromagnetic Forming of Tube 335 12.3.2 Kinematics of Electromagnetic Forming 339 12.3.2.1 Pressure Distribution 339 12.3.2.2 Forming Equilibrium 339 12.4 Electrohydraulic Forming 342 References 343 13: Tube and Duct Forming 346 13.1 Introduction 346 13.2 Bending 346 13.2.1 Bending Methods 347 13.2.2 Bending Tools 349 13.2.3 Springback 351 13.2.4 Lubrication 351 13.2.5 Speed 352 13.3 Forming 352 13.3.1 Bulge Forming 352 13.3.2 Draw Formed Pullout 354 13.3.3 Bead Forming 355 13.4 Swaging 356 13.4.1 Roller Swage 356 13.4.2 Elastomeric Swaging 356 13.4.3 Axial Swaging 357 13.4.4 Radial Swaging 358 13.5 Transition End Forming 358 13.5.1 Rotary Swaging 358 References 361 14: Welding Technology in Aerospace 362 14.1 Introduction 362 14.2 Type of Weld Joints 363 14.3 Friction Welding 364 14.3.1 Rotary Friction Welding 364 14.3.2 Linear Friction Welding 366 14.3.3 Friction-Stir Welding 368 14.3.3.1 Tribology and Thermodynamics in FSW 370 14.3.3.2 Tool Design 373 14.3.3.3 Microstructural Zones in FSW 375 14.4 Fusion Welding with External Heating Sources 376 14.4.1 Laser 377 14.4.2 Electron Beam 378 14.4.3 TIG 379 14.4.4 Metal Inert Gas 381 References 382 15: Metal Cutting and Machining Technology 384 15.1 Introduction 384 15.2 Fundamentals of Metal Cutting 385 15.2.1 Methods of Metal Cutting 385 15.2.2 Mechanics of Chip Formation 386 15.2.3 Type of Chips 387 15.2.3.1 Chip Thickness Ratio 388 15.2.4 Kinematics of Metal Cutting 389 15.2.4.1 Velocity Relation 389 15.2.4.2 Forces on Chip 390 15.2.4.3 Cutting Force 390 15.2.4.4 Work Done in Metal Cutting 391 15.2.5 Thermodynamics in Metal Cutting 392 15.3 Cutting Tool 392 15.3.1 Cutting Tool Parameters 393 15.3.2 Cutting Tool Materials 395 15.3.3 Tool Wear and Tool Life 395 15.4 Cutting Fluid 396 15.4.1 Type of Fluids 396 15.5 Major Metal-Cutting and Machining Operations 397 15.5.1 Turning 397 15.5.2 Drilling 398 15.5.3 Milling 399 15.5.4 Cutting Speed, Feed, and Depth of Cut in Machining 400 15.5.4.1 Cutting Speed 401 15.5.4.2 Feed 401 15.5.4.3 Depth of Cut 401 15.6 High-speed Machining Centers 402 15.7 Machinability 403 15.8 Machining of Various Metals Used in an Aircraft 403 15.8.1 Aluminum 404 15.8.2 Titanium 404 15.8.3 Steel 406 15.9 Machining of Composite Materials 406 15.10 Surface Finish in Machining 409 15.11 Economics of Machining 409 References 410 16: Abrasive Metal Removal and Cutting Processes 412 16.1 Introduction 412 16.2 Fundamentals of Abrasive Metal Removal Processes 412 16.3 Abrasive Materials 414 16.3.1 Bonded Abrasive 415 16.3.2 Coated Abrasive 417 16.4 Major Abrasive Metal Removal Processes 419 16.4.1 Grinding 419 16.4.2 Deburring 419 16.4.2.1 Bare Sheet 421 16.4.2.2 Clad Sheet 422 16.4.3 Belt Grinding and Polishing 425 16.4.4 Honing 428 16.5 Abrasive Cutting 428 References 430 17: Chemical Metal Removal and Chemical Processing of Metals 432 17.1 Introduction 432 17.2 Chemical Metal Removal Process 432 17.3 Chemical Cleaning 437 17.3.1 Cleaning of Aluminum Parts 437 17.3.2 Cleaning of Hard Metal Parts 438 17.4 Conversion Coatings 439 17.4.1 Chemical Film 439 17.4.2 Anodize 440 17.5 Plating of Hard Metals 441 References 441 18: Manufacturing Processes of Composite Materials for Aerospace 442 18.1 Introduction 442 18.2 Role of Composites in Major Aircraft Components 443 18.3 Manufacturing Processes of Composite Materials 444 18.4 Prepreg Layup 445 18.4.1 Hand Layup 445 18.4.2 Machine Layup 446 18.4.2.1 Filament Winding 446 18.4.2.2 Tape Lamination 447 18.4.2.3 Fiber Placement 450 18.4.2.4 Drape Forming 452 18.5 Liquid Composite Molding 452 18.5.1 Resin Transfer Molding 454 18.5.2 Vacuum-Assisted RTM 455 18.5.3 Resin Film Infusion 455 18.5.4 Pultrusion 456 18.6 Economics of Composite Manufacturing 457 References 457 19: Measurement and Inspection Methods in Aerospace Manufacturing 458 19.1 Introduction 458 19.2 Manual Bench 458 19.2.1 Measurement Tools 458 19.2.2 Functional Gages 459 19.2.3 Functional Check Fixtures 461 19.3 Computer Assisted 461 19.3.1 Machine-Driven Coordinate Measuring Machine 461 19.3.2 Hand-Driven Devices 463 19.3.2.1 Guided Method 463 19.3.2.2 Non-Guided Laser Tracker 465 19.4 Destructive Testing 467 19.5 Nondestructive Inspection/Testing 467 19.5.1 Dye Penetrant 467 19.5.2 Eddy Current 469 19.5.3 Ultrasonic 471 References 472 20: Research and Development 474 20.1 Introduction 474 20.2 Aircraft Materials 474 20.3 Manufacturing Process Technologies 476 Index 478