Advances in Nanoengineering: Electronics, Materials and Assembly (Royal Society Series on Advances in Science) (Royal Society Series on Advances in Science)

This book outlines a selection of exciting advances currently being made worldwide in the field of modern engineering at the nanometer scale. Leading scientists and engineers give a general overview of research advances in their specialized subject areas. They also describe some of their own cutting-edge research and give their visions of the future. Written in a popular and well-illustrated style, the articles are written by young scientists many of whom hold, or have held, prestigious Royal Society or EPSRC Fellowships. Carefully selected by Professor A G Davies and Professor J M T Thompson FRS, topics include: the fabrication and measurement of nanoelectronic devices, organic conductors, and bioelectronic materials; the assembly of such structures into appropriate configurations, including the use of biological processes to drive the assembly; the development of new materials including both organic and inorganic wires, carbon nanotubes, and magnetic materials; and finally, the analysis and characterization of these structures. The book conveys the excitement and enthusiasm of the authors for their work at the frontiers of modern engineering nanotechnology. All are definitive reviews for readers with a general interest in the future directions of science and engineering at the nanometer scale. CONTENTS 8 PREFACE 6 INTRODUCTION Giles Davies 14 Acknowledgments 19 1. THE SHAPE OF CARBON: NOVEL MATERIALS FOR THE 21ST CENTURY Humberto Terrones and Mauricio Terrones 20 1 Introduction 20 2 New Carbon Nanostructures: Fullerenes, Carbon Onions, Nanotubes, Etc. 22 2.1 Fullerene discovery and bulk synthesis 22 2.2 From giant fullerenes to graphitic onions 23 2.3 Carbon nanotubes 24 2.3.1 Identi.cation and structure of carbon nanotubes 24 2.3.2 Carbon nanotube production methods 25 2.3.3 Mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes 29 2.3.4 Electronic properties of carbon nanotubes 29 2.3.5 Thermal properties of carbon nanotubes 30 2.3.6 Carbon nanocones 30 2.3.7 Negatively curved graphite: Helices, toroids, and schwarzites 30 2.3.8 Haeckelites 33 3 The Future of Carbon Nanostructures: Applications and Emerging Technologies 33 3.1 Field emission sources 33 3.2 Scanning probe tips 34 3.3 Li ion batteries 34 3.4 Electrochemical devices: Supercapacitors and actuators 34 3.5 Molecular sensors 34 3.6 Carbon–carbon nanocomposites: Joining and connecting carbon nanotubes 35 3.7 Gas and hydrogen storage 37 3.8 Nanotube electronic devices 37 3.9 Biological devices 37 3.10 Nanotube polymer composites 38 3.11 Nanotube ceramic composites 38 3.12 Layered coated nanotubes 38 4 Conclusions and FutureWork 38 Acknowledgments 40 References 40 2. INORGANIC NANOWIRES Caterina Ducati 46 1 Introduction 47 2 Synthesis of High Aspect Ratio Inorganic Nanostructures 49 2.1 Low-temperature chemical vapor deposition of silicon nanowires 49 2.2 Synthesis of RuO2 nanorods in solution 54 2.3 Physical methods for the synthesis of SiC nanorods and NiS–MoS2 nanowires 57 3 Outlook 60 Acknowledgments 63 References 63 3. MULTILAYERED MATERIALS: A PALETTE FOR THE MATERIALS ARTIST Jon M. Molina-Aldareguia and Stephen J. Lloyd 68 1 Introduction 69 2 Multilayers 70 3 ElectronMicroscopy 73 4 Hard Coatings 74 4.1 TiN/NbN multilayers: A case where plastic .ow is confined within each layer 78 4.2 TiN/SiNx multilayers: A case where columnar growth is interrupted 80 4.3 TiN/SiNx multilayers revisited: A case where totally new behavior (not found in the bulk at all) is unraveled when the layers are made extremely thin 81 5 Metallic Magnetic Multilayers 84 6 Conclusion and Future Developments 87 Acknowledgments 88 References 88 4. NATURE AS CHIEF ENGINEER Simon R. Hall 92 1 Nature Inspires Engineering 92 2 Nature Becomes Engineering 95 3 Engineering Nature 111 3.1 The future 111 References 113 5. SUPRAMOLECULAR CHEMISTRY: THE “BOTTOM-UP” APPROACH TO NANOSCALE SYSTEMS Philip A. Gale 118 1 Introduction 118 2 Molecular Recognition 119 3 Self-Assembly 123 4 Self-Assembly with Covalent Modi.cation 129 5 Supramolecular Approaches to Molecular Machines 131 6 Conclusion 135 Acknowledgment 135 References 135 6. MOLECULAR SELF-ASSEMBLY: A TOOLKIT FOR ENGINEERING AT THE NANOMETER SCALE Christoph W ̈alti 140 1 Introduction 140 2 Functionalized Surfaces 145 3 DNA-Based Branched Complexes 155 4 Manipulation of DNA by Electric Fields 160 5 Concluding Remarks and Future Directions 167 Acknowledgments 167 References 168 7. EXPLORING TUNNEL TRANSPORT THROUGH PROTEIN AT THE MOLECULAR LEVEL Jason J. Davis, Nan Wang, Wang Xi, and Jianwei Zhao 180 1 Introduction 180 2 Molecular Electronics 182 3 Assembling Proteins at Electroactive Surfaces 185 4 Protein Tunnel Transport Probed in an STM Junction 186 5 Assaying Protein Conductance in CP-AFM Configurations 189 5.1 Tunnel transport under conditions of low to moderate load 189 5.2 Modulation of protein conductance under moderate load 195 5.3 Accessing the metallic states: Negative di.erential resistance 197 6 Conclusions 200 Acknowledgments 201 References 201 8. TWO FRONTIERS OF ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING: SIZE AND FREQUENCY John Cunningham 208 1 Introduction: Size and Frequency Limits for Modern Electronic Systems 208 2 Single Electronics 211 2.1 Conflning electrons 211 2.2 Electron pumps and turnstiles 216 2.3 Surface acoustic wave devices 218 3 Picosecond Electronics 220 3.1 Excitation and detection 220 3.2 Transmission of signals 223 3.3 Passive devices, filters, and dielectric loading 224 4 Future Prospects 224 Acknowledgments 226 References 226 9. ERASABLE ELECTROSTATIC LITHOGRAPHY TO FABRICATE QUANTUM DEVICES Rolf Crook 230 1 Quantum Devices 231 1.1 Fabrication 232 2 Scanning Probe Lithographic Techniques 235 2.1 Local anodic oxidation 235 2.2 Scribing 236 2.3 Atomicmanipulation 237 3 Erasable Electrostatic Lithography 237 3.1 Characterizing erasable electrostatic lithography 240 3.2 Future developments 242 4 Quantum Devices and Scanning Probes 243 4.1 Quantumwires 243 4.2 Quantum billiards 247 4.3 Quantumrings 249 4.4 Future devices 250 Acknowledgments 251 References 251 10. ULTRAFAST NANOMAGNETS: SEEING DATA STORAGE IN A NEWLIGHT Robert J. Hicken 256 1 Introduction 257 2 What Makes a Magnet? 257 3 How Are Nanomagnets Different? 260 4 Recording Technology and Speed Bottlenecks 264 5 Observing Ultrafast Magnetization Dynamics 267 6 Harnessing Precession 268 7 Optical Modification of the Spontaneous Magnetization 271 8 Future Trends 273 Acknowledgment 275 References 275 11. NEAR-FIELD MICROSCOPY: THROWING LIGHT ON THE NANOWORLD David Richards 278 1 Introduction 278 1.1 The need for nanoscale resolution optical microscopy 278 1.2 Breaking the diffraction limit 279 1.3 Scanning near-field optical microscopy 280 1.4 Nano-optics: The path toward nanometer optical resolution 281 2 Aperture-SNOM. 282 2.1 Implementation 282 2.2 Near-field fluorescence microscopy of light-emitting polymer blends 283 2.3 Beware of artifacts 286 3 Apertureless Near-Field Microscopy: The Promise of True Nanometer-Resolution Optical Imaging 287 3.1 Near-field optical microscopy with a metal or dielectric tip 287 3.2 “Single-molecule” fluorescent probes for SNOM 288 4 Tip-Enhanced Spectroscopy 289 4.1 Tip-enhanced Raman scattering 289 4.2 Tip-enhanced fluorescence 290 5 Future Developments 292 Acknowledgments 292 References 293 12. SMALL THINGS BRIGHT AND BEAUTIFUL: SINGLE MOLECULE FLUORESCENCE DETECTION Mark A. Osborne 296 1 Introduction 296 1.1 Principles 297 1.2 Probes 300 1.3 Excitation schemes 301 1.4 Collection optics 303 1.5 Detectors 304 2 DetectionModalities 305 2.1 Single molecule signatures 305 2.2 Photon antibunching 306 2.3 Fluorescence lifetimes 308 2.4 Polarization spectroscopy 309 2.5 Wide-field orientation imaging 310 2.6 Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. 312 2.7 Spectral diffusion 314 2.8 Fluorescence resonance energy transfer 315 2.9 Single molecule localization 316 3 Outlook 318 Acknowledgment 319 References 319 INDEX 326 CONTENTS......Page 8 PREFACE......Page 6 INTRODUCTION Giles Davies......Page 14 Acknowledgments......Page 19 1 Introduction......Page 20 2.1 Fullerene discovery and bulk synthesis......Page 22 2.2 From giant fullerenes to graphitic onions......Page 23 2.3.1 Identi.cation and structure of carbon nanotubes......Page 24 2.3.2 Carbon nanotube production methods......Page 25 2.3.4 Electronic properties of carbon nanotubes......Page 29 2.3.7 Negatively curved graphite: Helices, toroids, and schwarzites......Page 30 3.1 Field emission sources......Page 33 3.5 Molecular sensors......Page 34 3.6 Carbon–carbon nanocomposites: Joining and connecting carbon nanotubes......Page 35 3.9 Biological devices......Page 37 4 Conclusions and FutureWork......Page 38 References......Page 40 2. INORGANIC NANOWIRES Caterina Ducati......Page 46 1 Introduction......Page 47 2.1 Low-temperature chemical vapor deposition of silicon nanowires......Page 49 2.2 Synthesis of RuO2 nanorods in solution......Page 54 2.3 Physical methods for the synthesis of SiC nanorods and NiS–MoS2 nanowires......Page 57 3 Outlook......Page 60 References......Page 63 3. MULTILAYERED MATERIALS: A PALETTE FOR THE MATERIALS ARTIST Jon M. Molina-Aldareguia and Stephen J. Lloyd......Page 68 1 Introduction......Page 69 2 Multilayers......Page 70 3 ElectronMicroscopy......Page 73 4 Hard Coatings......Page 74 4.1 TiN/NbN multilayers: A case where plastic .ow is confined within each layer......Page 78 4.2 TiN/SiNx multilayers: A case where columnar growth is interrupted......Page 80 4.3 TiN/SiNx multilayers revisited: A case where totally new behavior (not found in the bulk at all) is unraveled when the layers are made extremely thin......Page 81 5 Metallic Magnetic Multilayers......Page 84 6 Conclusion and Future Developments......Page 87 References......Page 88 1 Nature Inspires Engineering......Page 92 2 Nature Becomes Engineering......Page 95 3.1 The future......Page 111 References......Page 113 1 Introduction......Page 118 2 Molecular Recognition......Page 119 3 Self-Assembly......Page 123 4 Self-Assembly with Covalent Modi.cation......Page 129 5 Supramolecular Approaches to Molecular Machines......Page 131 References......Page 135 1 Introduction......Page 140 2 Functionalized Surfaces......Page 145 3 DNA-Based Branched Complexes......Page 155 4 Manipulation of DNA by Electric Fields......Page 160 Acknowledgments......Page 167 References......Page 168 1 Introduction......Page 180 2 Molecular Electronics......Page 182 3 Assembling Proteins at Electroactive Surfaces......Page 185 4 Protein Tunnel Transport Probed in an STM Junction......Page 186 5.1 Tunnel transport under conditions of low to moderate load......Page 189 5.2 Modulation of protein conductance under moderate load......Page 195 5.3 Accessing the metallic states: Negative di.erential resistance......Page 197 6 Conclusions......Page 200 References......Page 201 1 Introduction: Size and Frequency Limits for Modern Electronic Systems......Page 208 2.1 Conflning electrons......Page 211 2.2 Electron pumps and turnstiles......Page 216 2.3 Surface acoustic wave devices......Page 218 3.1 Excitation and detection......Page 220 3.2 Transmission of signals......Page 223 4 Future Prospects......Page 224 References......Page 226 9. ERASABLE ELECTROSTATIC LITHOGRAPHY TO FABRICATE QUANTUM DEVICES Rolf Crook......Page 230 1 Quantum Devices......Page 231 1.1 Fabrication......Page 232 2.1 Local anodic oxidation......Page 235 2.2 Scribing......Page 236 3 Erasable Electrostatic Lithography......Page 237 3.1 Characterizing erasable electrostatic lithography......Page 240 3.2 Future developments......Page 242 4.1 Quantumwires......Page 243 4.2 Quantum billiards......Page 247 4.3 Quantumrings......Page 249 4.4 Future devices......Page 250 References......Page 251 10. ULTRAFAST NANOMAGNETS: SEEING DATA STORAGE IN A NEWLIGHT Robert J. Hicken......Page 256 2 What Makes a Magnet?......Page 257 3 How Are Nanomagnets Different?......Page 260 4 Recording Technology and Speed Bottlenecks......Page 264 5 Observing Ultrafast Magnetization Dynamics......Page 267 6 Harnessing Precession......Page 268 7 Optical Modification of the Spontaneous Magnetization......Page 271 8 Future Trends......Page 273 References......Page 275 1.1 The need for nanoscale resolution optical microscopy......Page 278 1.2 Breaking the diffraction limit......Page 279 1.3 Scanning near-field optical microscopy......Page 280 1.4 Nano-optics: The path toward nanometer optical resolution......Page 281 2.1 Implementation......Page 282 2.2 Near-field fluorescence microscopy of light-emitting polymer blends......Page 283 2.3 Beware of artifacts......Page 286 3.1 Near-field optical microscopy with a metal or dielectric tip......Page 287 3.2 “Single-molecule” fluorescent probes for SNOM......Page 288 4.1 Tip-enhanced Raman scattering......Page 289 4.2 Tip-enhanced fluorescence......Page 290 Acknowledgments......Page 292 References......Page 293 1 Introduction......Page 296 1.1 Principles......Page 297 1.2 Probes......Page 300 1.3 Excitation schemes......Page 301 1.4 Collection optics......Page 303 1.5 Detectors......Page 304 2.1 Single molecule signatures......Page 305 2.2 Photon antibunching......Page 306 2.3 Fluorescence lifetimes......Page 308 2.4 Polarization spectroscopy......Page 309 2.5 Wide-field orientation imaging......Page 310 2.6 Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy.......Page 312 2.7 Spectral diffusion......Page 314 2.8 Fluorescence resonance energy transfer......Page 315 2.9 Single molecule localization......Page 316 3 Outlook......Page 318 References......Page 319 INDEX......Page 326 Outlines a selection of advances made worldwide in the field of modern engineering at the nanometer scale. This work covers topics that include: the fabrication and measurement of nanoelectronic devices, organic conductors, and bioelectronic materials; the assembly of such structures into appropriate configurations; and more