Advances in Eco-Fuels for a Sustainable Environment (Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy)

Advances in Eco-fuels for Sustainable Environment presents the most recent developments in the field of environmentally friendly eco-fuels. Dr. Kalad Azad and his team of contributors analyze the latest bio-energy technologies and emission control strategies, while also considering other important factors, such as environmental sustainability and energy efficiency improvement. Coverage includes biofuel extraction and conversion technologies, the implementation of biotechnologies and system improvement methods in the process industries. This book will help readers develop a deeper understanding of the relevant concepts and solutions to global sustainability issues with the goal of achieving cleaner, more efficient energy. Energy industry practitioners, energy policymakers and government organizations, renewables researchers and academics will find this book extremely useful. Focuses on recent developments in the field of eco-fuels, applying concepts to various medium-large scale industries Considers the societal and environmental benefits, along with an analysis of technologies and research Includes contributions from industry experts and global case studies to demonstrate the application of the research and technologies discussed Front Cover......Page 1 Advances in Eco-Fuels for a Sustainable Environment......Page 4 Copyright......Page 5 Contents......Page 6 Contributors......Page 12 About the editor......Page 16 Preface......Page 18 1.1. Background......Page 24 1.2. Is ecofuel a possible solution for future energy security and environmental sustainability?......Page 28 1.3. Prospective ecofuel feedstocks......Page 29 1.4. Significance of using ecofuel......Page 31 1.5. Sustainability of ecofuels......Page 32 References......Page 33 2.1. Introduction......Page 38 2.2. Different feedstocks for different biofuel-generations......Page 40 2.3. Biofuel types......Page 46 2.3.1. Biogas and biomethane......Page 47 2.3.2. Liquid biofuels......Page 48 2.3.2.1. Biodiesel and bioethanol......Page 49 2.3.2.2. Biobutanol......Page 50 2.4.1. AD process......Page 51 2.4.2. Bioethanol production......Page 54 2.4.3. Biobutanol production......Page 60 2.5. Biofuels ecological footprint......Page 63 2.6. Economic considerations......Page 67 2.7. Future prospects......Page 69 2.8. Conclusions......Page 70 References......Page 71 3.1. Introduction......Page 76 3.2.1. Prospects of edible oils for biodiesel production......Page 77 3.2.1.1. Groundnut/peanut......Page 80 3.2.1.2. Sesame......Page 85 3.2.1.5. Olive......Page 86 3.2.1.8. Sunflower......Page 87 3.2.1.9. Soybean......Page 88 3.2.1.10. Walnut......Page 89 3.2.1.13. Coconut......Page 90 3.2.2. Prospects of nonedible oils for biodiesel production......Page 91 3.2.2.1. Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.)......Page 92 3.2.2.2. Neem oil (Azadirachta indica)......Page 95 3.2.2.4. Mahua oil (Madhuca indica)......Page 96 3.2.2.7. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)......Page 97 3.2.2.9. Rice bran oil (Oryza sativa)......Page 98 3.2.3. Animal fats as feedstock for biodiesel production......Page 99 3.3.1. Mechanical extraction method......Page 100 3.3.2. Chemical extraction method......Page 101 3.3.3. Enzymatic method of extraction......Page 102 3.3.4. Supercritical fluid method of extraction......Page 104 3.4. Challenges of biodiesel production and recommended solution......Page 105 3.5. Conclusion......Page 106 References......Page 107 4.1. Introduction......Page 112 4.2. Feedstocks for ecofuel production......Page 113 Soybean oil (Glycine max)......Page 114 Peanut oil (Arachis hypogaea)......Page 116 Sunflower oil (Helianthus annuus)......Page 117 Coconut oil (Cocos nucifera)......Page 118 Cottonseed oil (Gossypium hirsutum)......Page 119 4.2.1.3. Nonedible oils......Page 120 Pongamia oil (Pongamia pinnata)......Page 121 Jojoba oil (Simmondsia chinensis)......Page 122 Coffee oil (Coffea arabica)......Page 123 Milkweed seed oil (Asclepias syriaca)......Page 124 Rubber seed oil (Hevea brasiliensis)......Page 125 Safflower oil (Carthamus tinctorius)......Page 126 4.2.2. WCO as feedstock for biodiesel......Page 127 4.2.4. Grease as feedstock for biodiesel......Page 128 4.2.5.1. Fish oil as feedstock......Page 130 4.2.5.4. Tallow as feedstock......Page 131 4.2.6.1. Microalgae as feedstock for biodiesel......Page 132 4.3.1. Bioethanol from sugars......Page 133 4.3.3. Bioethanol from lignocelluloses......Page 134 4.5. Conclusion......Page 135 References......Page 136 Further reading......Page 140 5.1. Pyrolysis process in waste management......Page 142 5.2. Microwave heating mechanism......Page 144 5.3. Influence of microwave heating on the pyrolysis......Page 146 5.4. Factors affecting the pyrolysis process......Page 147 5.5. Designation of microwave heating on the materials......Page 150 5.7. Pyrolysis of automotive waste......Page 151 5.8. Experimental setup and procedure......Page 153 5.9. TG/DSC analysis for waste engine oil and microwave pyrolysis oil......Page 154 5.10.1. Temperature profile......Page 156 5.10.2. Specific energy consumption......Page 157 5.11.1. Pyrolysis liquid yield......Page 158 5.11.3. Char yield......Page 160 5.12. Hydrocarbon analysis of electrical and microwave pyrolysis......Page 162 5.13. Analysis of FT-IR spectroscopy of different products......Page 171 5.14. Comparison of calorific value for the different pyrolysis oil......Page 173 5.15. Comparison of kinematic viscosity of the different pyrolysis oils......Page 174 Acknowledgments......Page 175 References......Page 176 6.1. Introduction......Page 180 6.2.2. Acidogenesis......Page 183 6.3.1. Physical methods......Page 184 6.3.2. Chemical methods......Page 185 6.4.1. Temperature......Page 186 6.4.2. Pressure......Page 187 6.4.4. Retention period......Page 188 6.4.6. Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio......Page 189 6.5.3. The need for removing moisture from biogas......Page 190 6.7.2. Wet and dry systems......Page 191 6.8.1. Floating drum type digester......Page 192 6.8.5. Horizontal plants......Page 193 6.9.3. Aquatic plants......Page 194 6.10. Second-generation biofuel production from agricultural waste......Page 195 6.10.1.1. Homogeneous catalyst......Page 197 6.10.1.2. Enzymatic biocatalyst......Page 198 6.11.2. Biochemical methane potential......Page 199 6.11.4. Hydrodynamic, hydric transfers, and rheology......Page 200 6.11.5. Codigestion and inhibition......Page 201 6.12. Conclusion......Page 202 References......Page 203 7.1. Introduction......Page 210 7.2. Overview on downstream processing techniques......Page 212 7.3. Extraction of oil from nonedible seeds......Page 213 7.4.1. Mechanical extraction......Page 214 7.4.4. Enzymatic extraction......Page 215 7.5.1. Pyrolysis (thermal cracking)......Page 216 7.5.4. Transesterification (alcoholysis)......Page 217 7.6.1. Harvesting of microalgae......Page 218 7.6.2.1. Centrifugation......Page 219 7.6.2.3. Filtration......Page 220 7.6.2.5. Magnetic separation......Page 221 7.7.2. Microwave-assisted extraction......Page 222 7.7.3. Ultrasound-assisted extraction......Page 223 7.8.2. Supercritical fluid extraction......Page 224 7.8.4. Ionic liquids......Page 225 7.10. Conclusions......Page 226 References......Page 227 Further reading......Page 232 8.1. Introduction......Page 234 8.2. History of bioethanol production......Page 236 8.3. Bioethanol feedstock resources......Page 238 8.4. Progress in bioethanol technologies......Page 240 8.5.1. Global bioethanol potential......Page 242 8.5.2. Commercial bioethanol plants in operation......Page 243 8.5.3. Bioethanol plants at the pilot and demonstration stage......Page 246 8.5.4. Bioethanol plants stopped production......Page 249 8.5.5. Summary of future activities......Page 252 8.6. Challenges and future research direction......Page 254 8.7. Conclusion......Page 255 References......Page 256 Further reading......Page 259 9.1. Introduction......Page 260 9.2.1. Rice bran and rice bran oil (RBO)......Page 262 9.2.2. Microalgae......Page 264 9.2.3. Spent coffee grounds......Page 267 9.3.1. Catalytic and noncatalytic biodiesel conversion of rice bran/RBO......Page 268 9.3.2. Catalytic and noncatalytic biodiesel conversion from microalgae......Page 271 9.3.3. Catalytic and noncatalytic biodiesel production from spent coffee grounds......Page 280 9.4.1. Production of biodiesel and γ-oryzanol from rice bran/RBO......Page 284 9.4.2. Biorefinery approach in biodiesel production from microalgae......Page 287 9.4.3. Biorefinery approach in the biodiesel production from spent coffee grounds......Page 290 9.5. Conclusions......Page 291 References......Page 292 Further reading......Page 299 10.1. Introduction......Page 300 10.2.1. Feedstock characterization......Page 305 10.2.2. Design of experiment, experimental procedure, and statistical analysis......Page 306 10.2.3. Experimental method......Page 307 10.2.4. Determination of the appropriate conditions for enhanced biocrude yield......Page 310 10.3. Comparative assessment of the economic performances of the HTL based one-step processing of digestate and existing .........Page 311 10.3.1.1. Equipment purchase cost......Page 312 10.3.1.2. HTL-digestate processing operating cost estimation......Page 314 10.3.2.1. Total capital investment cost estimate for both digestate processing and water treatment operations......Page 315 10.3.2.2. Annual operating cost estimate for the digestate processing for both digestate processing and water treatment o .........Page 316 10.4. Results and discussions......Page 318 10.4.1. Effects and statistical significance of operating conditions of the HTL process investigated......Page 319 10.4.2. The operating conditions for a maximum biocrude yield......Page 323 10.4.3. Comparative economic assessments of the HTL digestate processing pathway and the (existing) conventional digestat .........Page 324 10.4.4. Range of possible values of the unit digestate processing cost for the alternative pathways......Page 325 10.5. Conclusions......Page 326 References......Page 327 11.1. Introduction......Page 332 11.2.2. Oil extraction......Page 334 11.2.3.2. Base-catalyzed transesterification......Page 335 11.2.7.1. Acid value......Page 336 11.2.7.3. Iodine value......Page 337 11.2.7.6. Cloud and pour point......Page 338 11.2.7.8. Conradson carbon residue......Page 339 11.3.1. Infrared spectra of AMC biodiesel......Page 341 11.3.2. The fatty acid composition of AMC biodiesel......Page 342 11.3.3.1. Cetane number......Page 343 11.3.3.2. Saponification value......Page 345 11.3.3.3. Iodine value......Page 346 11.3.3.5. Cold filter plugging point (CFPP) cloud point and pour point......Page 347 11.3.3.6. Acid number......Page 348 11.3.3.8. Lubricity......Page 349 11.3.3.9. Carbon residue......Page 351 Mechanism of oxidation......Page 352 Factors affecting oxidation......Page 353 11.3.4. Tribological analysis......Page 354 11.4. Conclusions......Page 356 References......Page 357 12.1. Introduction......Page 360 12.2. Methodology and associated theory......Page 361 12.3.1. Physiochemical properties of the fuel......Page 363 12.3.2. Analysis of coefficient of friction......Page 365 12.3.3. Wear characteristics......Page 369 12.3.5. Surface morphology analysis by SEM......Page 370 References......Page 372 13.1. Introduction......Page 376 13.2.1. Waste frying oil and methyl ester purification process......Page 380 13.2.2. Biodiesel experimental setup and biodiesel synthesis......Page 381 13.2.3. Design of experiments......Page 382 13.2.4. Methyl ester characterization......Page 384 13.2.5.1. Flash and fire point......Page 385 13.2.5.4. Calorific value......Page 386 13.2.6. Fuel properties......Page 387 13.2.7. Fuel modification and selection of ternary blends......Page 390 13.2.8. Engine setup and uncertainty analysis......Page 392 13.3.2. The effect of process parameters in biodiesel synthesis......Page 396 13.3.3. Performance, emission, and combustion characteristics of biodiesel-diesel-alcohol blends......Page 397 13.4. Conclusions......Page 409 References......Page 411 14.1. Introduction......Page 414 14.2.4. Experimental details......Page 417 14.3.1. Different proportions of AME blends with diesel......Page 419 14.3.3. Brake specific fuel consumption......Page 420 14.3.4. Exhaust gas temperature......Page 421 14.3.4.1. HC emission......Page 422 14.3.4.2. Carbon monoxide emission......Page 423 14.3.4.4. Smoke emission......Page 424 14.3.5. Cylinder pressure......Page 425 14.3.6. Heat release rate......Page 426 References......Page 427 15.1. Introduction......Page 430 15.2.1.2. Gaseous fuels......Page 433 15.3. Biodiesel in CI engine......Page 435 15.3.2. Nonedible oils......Page 436 15.3.3. Production process......Page 437 15.3.4.1. Brake thermal efficiency......Page 438 15.3.5.1. Ignition delay......Page 440 15.3.6.1. Hydrocarbons......Page 441 15.3.6.4. Smoke......Page 442 15.4.1. Alcohols in CI engine......Page 443 15.4.1.1. Performance characteristics of alcohols......Page 444 Ignition delay......Page 445 Carbon monoxide......Page 446 Smoke......Page 447 15.4.2.1. Performance characteristics of LVLC fuels......Page 448 Cylinder peak pressure......Page 449 Hydrocarbons......Page 450 15.4.2.4. Tribological aspects of LVLC fuels......Page 451 15.5.1.1. Brake thermal efficiency......Page 452 15.5.2. Combustion characteristics of gaseous fuels......Page 454 15.5.2.3. Heat release rate......Page 455 15.5.3.2. Carbon monoxide......Page 456 15.6. Conclusion......Page 457 References......Page 459 Further reading......Page 463 16.1. Introduction......Page 464 16.2. Types of biofuel and bioethanol......Page 465 16.3. Worldwide bioethanol production......Page 466 16.4.1. High oil price......Page 467 16.4.3. Peak oil era......Page 468 16.5.1. Additional pressure on prime agricultural land......Page 469 16.5.3. Environmental impacts......Page 470 16.6. Bioethanol production in Australia......Page 471 16.7. Potential feedstocks for bioethanol production in Australia......Page 473 16.8. Costs and benefits of biofuel production in Australia......Page 475 Acknowledgment......Page 477 References......Page 478 Further reading......Page 481 17.1. Introduction of ecofuel......Page 482 17.2. Global interest in ecofuels......Page 483 17.3. Ecofuel sources......Page 485 17.3.2. Second-generation (2G) ecofuel......Page 486 17.3.4. Fourth-generation (4G) ecofuels......Page 487 17.4. Why ecofuels and ecofuel policies?......Page 488 17.5. Assessing the impacts of ecofuels......Page 490 17.6. Expected environmental impacts of ecofuel......Page 491 17.6.4. Potential economic gains......Page 492 17.6.7. Water reuses......Page 493 17.6.9. Land use aspects......Page 494 17.7. Land availability......Page 495 17.8.3. Job creation at farm level......Page 496 17.9. Political impacts of ecofuels......Page 497 References......Page 498 Index......Page 504 Back Cover......Page 520