Adler's Physiology of the Eye: Expert Consult - Online and Print, 11th Edition

Drs. Paul L. Kaufman, Albert Alm, Leonard A Levin, Siv F. E. Nilsson, James Ver Hoeve, and Samuel Wu present the 11th Edition of the classic text Adler’s Physiology of the Eye, updated to enhance your understanding of ocular function. This full-color, user-friendly edition captures the latest molecular, genetic, and biochemical discoveries and offers you unparalleled knowledge and insight into the physiology of the eye and its structures. A new organization by function, rather than anatomy, helps you make a stronger connection between physiological principles and clinical practice; and more than 1,000 great new full-color illustrations help clarify complex concepts. You can also access the complete contents online at www.expertconsult.com. • Deepen your grasp of the physiological principles that underlie visual acuity, color vision, ocular circulation, the extraocular muscle, and much more. • Glean the latest knowledge in the field, including the most recent molecular, genetic, and biochemical discoveries. • Make a stronger connection between physiology and clinical practice with the aid of an enhanced clinical emphasis throughout, as well as a new organization by function rather than by anatomy. • Better visualize all concepts by viewing 1,000 clear, full-color illustrations. • Access the complete contents online at expertconsult.com. The new and improved Adler’s makes mastering the basic science of the eye engaging and easy Cover......Page 1 ISBN: 9780323057141......Page 2 Copyright......Page 5 Preface......Page 8 List of Contributors......Page 9 Acknowledgements......Page 12 Dedication......Page 13 Axial length......Page 14 Emmetropization......Page 15 Neural processing......Page 16 Recognizing faces......Page 17 Recognizing movement......Page 18 Role of the cornea......Page 19 Role of the crystalline lens......Page 20 Rhodopsin......Page 21 Chart luminance......Page 22 Contrast sensitivity testing......Page 23 Recording contrast sensitivity......Page 25 Glare, tissue light scattering, and contrast sensitivity......Page 26 Cataracts and opacified posterior capsules......Page 28 Depth of focus......Page 29 Light scattering......Page 30 Natural defenses against light scattering......Page 32 Spherical aberration......Page 33 The aging eye......Page 34 Edge sharpening......Page 35 Vernier acuity......Page 36 Prevalence......Page 37 Components of ametropia......Page 38 References......Page 39 Wavefront optics......Page 41 Optical limitations to vision......Page 43 Monochromatic aberrations......Page 44 Aberrometry and wavefront sensing devices......Page 45 Visual disturbances associated with HOA......Page 47 Factors which limit the benefit of HOA correction......Page 48 Correcting HOA with spectacles, contact lenses and intraocular lenses......Page 50 References......Page 51 Introduction......Page 53 Accommodation......Page 54 The optical requirements for accommodation......Page 55 Depth of field......Page 56 The ciliary muscle......Page 57 The zonular fibers......Page 58 The crystalline lens......Page 60 The mechanism of accommodation......Page 61 Accommodative optical changes in the lens and eye......Page 62 The stimulus to accommodate......Page 68 The pharmacology of accommodation......Page 69 Measurement of accommodation......Page 70 Age-related changes in rhesus ciliary muscle......Page 72 Age-related changes in the zonule......Page 74 Age-related changes in the capsule......Page 75 Growth of the crystalline lens......Page 76 Loss of ability of the human lens to accommodate......Page 78 Age-related increase in stiffness of the human lens......Page 79 References......Page 81 Embryology, growth, development, and aging......Page 84 Major corneal reference points and measurements......Page 86 Light refraction......Page 90 Light transmission......Page 91 Collagen......Page 93 Keratocytes......Page 96 Proteoglycans......Page 98 Corneal nerves......Page 101 Corneal stromal wound healing......Page 102 Low-permeability barrier: the corneal epithelium......Page 105 High-permeability barrier: the corneal endothelium......Page 109 Leaky barrier function......Page 111 Metabolic pump function......Page 112 Corneal edema......Page 114 Basement membrane and glycocalyx......Page 118 Corneal stress......Page 119 Corneal stiffness, strength extensibility, and toughness......Page 120 Chronic biomechanical failure of the cornea – ectasia......Page 122 Drug delivery......Page 125 Ultraviolet light filtration......Page 127 Embryology, growth, development, and aging......Page 128 Major scleral reference points and measurements......Page 132 Mechanical properties......Page 133 Episcleral vasculature......Page 134 Drug delivery......Page 135 References......Page 138 The basics of lens refraction and transparency......Page 144 The early development of the lens......Page 146 Lens fiber cell differentiation......Page 148 Lens crystallins......Page 149 The lens fiber cell cytoskeleton......Page 150 Other cellular and biochemical specializations found in lens fiber cells......Page 151 The control of lens growth......Page 152 Overview......Page 153 Protection against oxidative damage......Page 154 Water and electrolyte balance......Page 155 Lens transparency and refraction......Page 156 The structure and development of the lens sutures......Page 157 The zonules......Page 158 General risk factors......Page 159 Age-related nuclear cataracts......Page 161 Age-related cortical cataracts......Page 163 Mixed cataracts......Page 164 Less common types of cataract......Page 165 Perspectives for preventing cataract blindness......Page 168 References......Page 170 Anatomy of the mature vitreous body......Page 177 The vitreoretinal interface......Page 178 Ultrastructural and biochemical aspects......Page 179 Biophysical aspects......Page 181 Structural changes......Page 184 Diffusion kinetics as an indicator of the biophysical status of the vitreous......Page 185 Posterior vitreous detachment......Page 187 Development of macular edema......Page 188 Normal conditions......Page 189 The vitreous body as a sensor for the physiology of surrounding structures......Page 190 Determination of the blood–retinal barrier, passive permeability and active transport for fluorescein in humans, based upon concentration changes in the vitreous body......Page 191 References......Page 192 Gross anatomy......Page 195 Cranial motor nerve innervation......Page 198 Orbital connective tissue......Page 199 Histological anatomy and physiologic implications......Page 200 Metabolism......Page 204 Proprioception and proprioceptors......Page 208 Development......Page 209 Strabismus......Page 210 Nystagmus......Page 211 Diseases where EOM are preferentially spared......Page 212 Diseases where EOM are preferentially involved......Page 215 References......Page 217 Quantifying eye rotations......Page 221 Head-fixed coordinates......Page 223 Listing’s law......Page 224 False torsion......Page 226 Neural control of ocular orientation......Page 227 Orbital mechanics can simplify neural control: extraocular pulleys......Page 229 References......Page 232 Binocular constraints on eye position control......Page 233 Feedback and feedforward control systems......Page 234 Cranial nerves: III, IV, & VI and motor nuclei......Page 235 Motor neuron response......Page 236 Extra-retinal signals......Page 237 Retinal signals......Page 238 Vestibulo-ocular reflex......Page 239 Static control of eye alignment (fixation)......Page 240 Conjugate smooth pursuit tracking......Page 242 Smooth vergence tracking system......Page 243 Rapid conjugate shifts of gaze direction (saccadic eye movements)......Page 244 Disconjugate shifts of gaze distance (the near response in symmetrical convergence)......Page 245 Interactions between conjugate and disconjugate eye movements (asymmetric vergence)......Page 246 Vergence gaze shifting system: the near triad and interactions with saccades......Page 248 Neurological disorders of the oculomotor system......Page 249 Gaze restrictions......Page 250 Saccade disorders......Page 252 References......Page 253 Vascular supply of the retina......Page 256 Perimacular pattern......Page 257 Vascular supply of the anterior segment......Page 259 Paracellular pathway......Page 260 Extracellular matrix......Page 261 Blood–aqueous barriers......Page 262 Techniques used in experimental animals......Page 263 Non-invasive techniques used in physiological and clinical research......Page 264 General hemodynamic considerations......Page 267 Ciliary circulation......Page 268 Retina and ONH......Page 269 Static exercises......Page 270 Hypoxia......Page 271 Hypercapnia......Page 272 Light/dark transition......Page 273 Control of arterial tone by endothelium or neuro-glial activity......Page 274 Endothelins......Page 275 Effects of vasoactive nerves......Page 276 Vasoconstrictors......Page 277 Diabetes......Page 278 References......Page 279 Physiology of aqueous humor formation......Page 287 Biochemistry of aqueous humor formation......Page 288 Blood–aqueous barrier......Page 291 Active transport......Page 292 Cholinergic mechanisms......Page 293 Other agents......Page 294 Fluid mechanics......Page 296 Structural components......Page 297 Pumping model for trabecular outflow......Page 298 Active involvement of the TM in regulating outflow......Page 299 Extracellular matrix accumulation and POAG......Page 300 Conventional (trabecular) outflow......Page 302 Alterations in cholinergic sensitivity of the outflow apparatus......Page 303 Conventional (trabecular) outflow......Page 304 Cytoskeletal and cell junctional mechanisms (Box 11.2)......Page 305 Corticosteroid mechanisms......Page 307 Prostaglandin mechanisms (Box 11.3)......Page 309 Cell volume related mechanisms......Page 310 Other agents......Page 311 References......Page 312 Introduction......Page 321 Photoreceptor QO2 in light......Page 322 Role of glycolysis underlying retinal function: from whole retina to its parts......Page 323 Biochemical specialization of glial cells......Page 324 Functional neuronal activity and division of metabolic labor......Page 326 Cellular compartmentation of energy substrates other than glucose......Page 327 If there are no conventional synapses in drone retina and only the photoreceptors are directly excitable by light, what is the evidence that photoreceptors depend on surrounding glia for their metabolic needs?......Page 328 Glucose is not the principal energy substrate used by photoreceptors, so what is the identity of the energy metabolite maintaining photoreceptor function and respiration?......Page 329 Overall scheme for metabolic compartmentation and metabolic trafficking in honeybee drone retina......Page 330 Experimental models in vertebrates......Page 331 Metabolic interaction between photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelia......Page 332 Metabolic factors in the regulation of retinal blood flow......Page 333 Metabolic pathway leading to nitric oxide release......Page 334 References......Page 335 Transport from the blood side to the photoreceptor side......Page 338 Transport from the retinal side to the blood side......Page 339 Capacitative compensation of fast changes in the ion composition in the subretinal space......Page 340 Visual cycle......Page 341 Phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments......Page 342 Structural integrity of neighboring tissues......Page 343 References......Page 344 Orbit osteology......Page 346 The orbital apex......Page 348 Periorbital fascia......Page 350 Orbital nerves......Page 351 Arterial supply......Page 352 The eyebrow and forehead......Page 353 The midface......Page 354 The eyelid margin......Page 356 Eyelid musculature......Page 357 Eyelid vasculature......Page 358 Eyelid innervation......Page 359 References......Page 360 Structure......Page 363 Function......Page 365 Regulation of goblet cell secretion......Page 366 Regulation of conjunctival electrolyte and water secretion......Page 367 Types of protein secretion......Page 369 α1-Adrenergic agonists......Page 370 Mechanism of acinar electrolyte and water secretion......Page 371 Mechanism of ductal electrolyte and water secretion......Page 372 Structure of meibomian glands and mechanism of lipid production......Page 373 References......Page 374 The ophthalmic nerve and its branches......Page 376 Distribution of sensory nerve fibers within the eye......Page 377 Intraepithelial nerve terminals......Page 378 Development of corneal nerves......Page 380 Sensory fibers of the cornea and conjunctiva......Page 382 Cold thermal receptors......Page 384 “Silent” nociceptors......Page 385 Local inflammation......Page 387 Trophic effects of ocular sensory nerves......Page 388 Sensitivity of the injured cornea......Page 390 Ocular pain......Page 392 Deep ocular pain......Page 394 Prevention of surgical pain......Page 395 References......Page 396 Efflux transporters – brief history......Page 398 P-gp......Page 399 MRP......Page 400 BCRP......Page 402 Clinical correlates from literature......Page 403 Strategies to evade efflux transporters......Page 404 References......Page 405 Dark-adapted rods......Page 407 The dark current and the cGMP-gated channel......Page 409 Ca2+ and the exchanger......Page 410 Rhodopsin......Page 411 G-protein, Gt......Page 412 Importance of lipid milieu......Page 413 Photoisomerization of rhodopsin......Page 414 Rhodopsin phosphorylation, retinoid recycling and regeneration......Page 415 Amplification......Page 417 Turnover of guanine nucleotides......Page 418 Phototransduction and disease......Page 419 What we don’t know......Page 420 References......Page 421 Photocurrent response to flashes......Page 424 Detecting single photons......Page 426 Photocurrent response to steady light......Page 428 Action spectra of rods and cones......Page 430 CNG channel and Na+/K+,Ca2+ exchanger......Page 433 Role of inner segment conductances......Page 435 Voltage-activated calcium current, ICa......Page 436 Calcium-activated anion current, ICl(Ca)......Page 437 Electrotonic coupling......Page 438 References......Page 439 Purposes of light adaptation......Page 442 Scotopic vision: the rod system provides specialization for night vision......Page 443 Saturation of the electrical response in rods and its avoidance in cones......Page 445 Unaltered rising phase but accelerated recovery......Page 446 Dependence of sensitivity on background intensity: Weber’s Law......Page 447 Extremely rapid recovery of human cone photocurrent......Page 448 Photoreceptor light adaptation independent of calcium......Page 449 Powerful negative feedback loop mediated by calcium......Page 450 Shortened R* lifetime......Page 451 Cone avoidance of saturation......Page 452 Dark adaptation of the rods: very slow recovery from bleaching......Page 453 References......Page 455 Kinds of neurons......Page 456 The gliaform cell phenotype......Page 457 True glia and vasculature......Page 458 Photoreceptor ribbon synapses: small-volume multi-target signaling......Page 459 BC ribbon synapses: semi-precise target signaling......Page 460 AC, AxC, and efferent slow transmitter synapses: large volume signaling......Page 461 Fast, focal neurochemistry, synaptic currents, and amplification......Page 462 Modulation by transporters......Page 463 Synaptic chains and polarity......Page 464 The synaptology of mammalian rod pathways – evolution of a new amplification scheme......Page 465 R/G opponency......Page 467 Revising the retinal synaptic networks with disease......Page 468 References......Page 470 Electrical synapses (coupling) between photoreceptors......Page 472 Horizontal cell responses......Page 473 Horizontal cell output synapses......Page 475 Rod and cone pathways and bipolar cell output synapses......Page 477 Bipolar cell responses and center-surround antagonistic receptive field (CSARF) organization......Page 478 References......Page 482 Synaptic mechanisms shape excitatory signals in the IPL......Page 484 Amacrine cells mediate inhibition in the IPL......Page 486 The contributions of the inner and outer retina to ganglion cell receptive field surround organization......Page 488 Ganglion cells encode color information......Page 489 Intrinsically photosensitive ganglion cells......Page 490 References......Page 491 Radial current flow......Page 493 Glial currents......Page 495 Non-invasive recording of the ERG......Page 496 Full-field dark-adapted (Ganzfeld) flash ERG......Page 497 Negative ERGs......Page 498 Mixed rod-cone a-wave......Page 499 Dark-adapted b-wave (PII)......Page 500 Scotopic threshold response (STR)......Page 501 Isolating cone-driven responses......Page 502 Light-adapted a-wave......Page 504 Light-adapted b-wave......Page 505 Light-adapted d-wave......Page 506 Flicker ERG......Page 507 Photopic negative response......Page 508 Pattern ERG......Page 509 Multifocal ERG......Page 510 Closing comments......Page 511 References......Page 512 Regulation of Light through the Pupil......Page 515 The neuronal pathway of the pupil light reflex and near pupil response......Page 516 Afferent arm of the pupil light reflex......Page 517 The interneuron arm of the pupil light reflex......Page 519 The efferent arm of the pupil light reflex......Page 520 Pupil reflex dilation: central and peripheral nervous system integration......Page 521 Iris sphincter, iris dilator, and iris color......Page 522 Properties of light and their effect on pupil movement......Page 523 Clinical observation of the pupil light reflex......Page 524 Anisocoria......Page 527 Pupil inequality that increases in the dark......Page 528 Pharmacologic diagnosis of Horner syndrome with cocaine or apraclonidine......Page 531 Congenital and childhood Horner syndrome......Page 532 Cholinergic supersensitivity......Page 533 Adie’s tonic pupil: postganglionic parasympathetic denervation......Page 534 Pupil involvement in third nerve palsy......Page 535 When the pupil fails to dilate......Page 536 References......Page 537 Historical roots......Page 539 Discovery of melanopsin and ganglion-cell photoreceptors......Page 540 Spectral tuning......Page 541 Depolarizing photoresponse with action potentials......Page 542 Morphology, retinal distribution and receptive field......Page 544 Resistance to pathological states......Page 545 Bipolar cell input......Page 546 Amacrine cell input......Page 548 Intraretinal output......Page 549 Central projections......Page 550 Circadian photoentrainment and photic modulation of the pineal......Page 551 Acute regulation of activity and sleep......Page 553 References......Page 554 Targets of the retinal projections......Page 558 Visual field lesions......Page 560 References......Page 562 Intraorbital optic nerve......Page 563 The optic canal......Page 564 The optic tract and lateral geniculate nucleus......Page 565 Astrocytes......Page 566 Microglia......Page 567 Optic nerve head......Page 568 Generation of optic nerve oligodendrocytes and myelination......Page 569 Axon guidance......Page 570 Retinal ganglion cell electrophysiology and synaptic transmission......Page 571 Role of astrocytes......Page 572 Ischemic optic neuropathy......Page 573 Glaucoma......Page 574 Retinal ganglion cell death after optic nerve injury......Page 575 Signaling of axonal injury......Page 576 Glial inhibition of neurite extension......Page 577 Neuroprotection and retinal ganglion cell survival......Page 578 “Neuroenhancement” of retinal ganglion cell function......Page 579 References......Page 580 Layers and maps......Page 587 Cell classes......Page 588 Inputs: extraretinal sources and cortical feedback......Page 589 Outputs: projections to V1 and beyond......Page 590 Feedback and feedforward pathways......Page 591 Circuit neurochemistry......Page 592 Receptive field properties and parallel processing......Page 593 The impact of feedback......Page 594 The LGN and motor planning......Page 596 Conclusions......Page 597 References......Page 598 Overview of cortical organization: a general road map......Page 599 LGN inputs......Page 601 Cell classes and connections within V1......Page 602 Output pathways from V1......Page 603 Receptive field properties: How is V1 different from the LGN?......Page 604 Columns and modules: Outlining the functional architecture of V1......Page 606 How do parallel inputs relate to parallel outputs?......Page 607 The importance of time......Page 608 The importance of context......Page 609 References......Page 610 Retinotopic mapping......Page 612 Functional specificity......Page 614 Comparing visual areas in monkeys and humans......Page 615 V2......Page 616 MT/V5 and related areas......Page 618 V3......Page 619 V4......Page 620 PIT/TEO......Page 621 References......Page 622 Foveal window of visibility......Page 626 What is the relationship between the contrast sensitivity function and the response of single cortical cells?......Page 627 Do these two parallel systems carry the same or different contrast sensitivity information?......Page 628 The effect of disease on contrast sensitivity......Page 629 Peripheral window of visibility......Page 631 Luminance......Page 632 Chromatic sensitivity......Page 634 Suprathreshold sensitivity......Page 636 Conclusion......Page 637 References......Page 638 Minimum resolvable acuity......Page 640 Minimum discriminable acuity......Page 642 Optical quality of the eye......Page 643 Refractive error and defocus results in a marked loss of image quality......Page 645 Cone to ganglion cell convergence......Page 646 Eccentricity......Page 647 Crowding in peripheral vision......Page 649 Motion......Page 650 Visual acuity and reading......Page 651 The contrast sensitivity function represents our window of visibility......Page 652 The CSF in peripheral vision......Page 653 Visual acuity chart design considerations......Page 655 Development of visual acuity and CSF......Page 656 Visual acuity through the lifespan......Page 657 Crowding and amblyopia......Page 658 References......Page 659 Molecular genetics of color vision and color deficiencies......Page 661 Blue-yellow circuitry......Page 663 Red-green circuitry......Page 665 Future directions......Page 666 References......Page 667 The psychophysical basis for perimetry......Page 668 Types of perimetric testing......Page 669 Static perimetry......Page 670 Suprathreshold static perimetry......Page 671 Detection of perimetric sensitivity loss and interpretation of results......Page 672 Patterns of visual field loss associated with different pathologic conditions......Page 675 Determination of visual field progression......Page 677 A guide for interpretation of visual field information......Page 678 Frequency doubling technology (FDT) perimetry......Page 680 Motion perimetry......Page 682 Rarebit perimetry......Page 683 Multifocal visual evoked potentials (mfVEP)......Page 684 Conclusions......Page 686 References......Page 687 Visual direction......Page 690 Normal retinal correspondence......Page 692 Abnormal retinal correspondence......Page 694 Binocular (retinal) disparity......Page 696 Stereopsis......Page 698 Quantitative and qualitative stereopsis......Page 699 Stereoacuity......Page 700 Spatial distortions from aniseikonia......Page 703 Motion-in-depth......Page 706 Suppression in normal binocular vision......Page 707 References......Page 708 Temporal summation and the critical duration......Page 711 Critical flicker fusion frequency......Page 712 Effect of stimulus luminance on CFF......Page 713 Effect of stimulus size on CFF: the Granit–Harper law......Page 714 Temporal contrast sensitivity......Page 715 Chromatic temporal sensitivity......Page 716 Mechanisms underlying temporal sensitivity......Page 717 Differences between mean-modulated and luminance-pedestal flicker......Page 718 Temporal phase segmentation......Page 719 Clinical applications of temporal sensitivity measurements......Page 720 The neural encoding of motion......Page 721 Clinical applications of motion processing......Page 722 References......Page 723 Ocular following movements......Page 726 Hierarchy of visual processing......Page 727 Spatio-temporal vision......Page 728 Grating acuity......Page 729 Vernier acuity......Page 730 Motion direction asymmetries......Page 731 Fusion......Page 732 Development of disparity sensitivity......Page 733 References......Page 735 Retinogeniculate projections are refined during development......Page 738 What parameters of activity drive refinement?......Page 739 Synaptic inputs change strength with segregation......Page 741 Molecular mechanisms guiding the formation of eye-specific axonal territories......Page 742 References......Page 743 Perceptual deficits......Page 745 Neural changes......Page 746 Brief unrestricted vision during monocular deprivation......Page 747 Critical period for monocular form deprivation......Page 748 Molecular mechanisms of ocular dominance plasticity......Page 749 Neural changes......Page 752 Alternating defocus......Page 753 Effects of onset age and duration of strabismus......Page 755 Duration......Page 757 Amblyopia......Page 758 Neural changes......Page 759 References......Page 760 Cross-modal processing in visually normal development......Page 763 Cross-modal processing in visually normal adults......Page 764 Tactile performance......Page 765 Braille tactile processing......Page 768 Auditory processing......Page 769 Auditory localization......Page 771 Cross-modal connectivity within occipital cortex of early blind individuals......Page 772 Blindfolding studies......Page 774 Restoration of vision......Page 775 Concluding remarks......Page 777 References......Page 778 A......Page 780 B......Page 782 C......Page 783 D......Page 786 E......Page 787 F......Page 789 G......Page 790 I......Page 791 L......Page 793 M......Page 794 N......Page 796 O......Page 797 P......Page 798 R......Page 801 S......Page 803 T......Page 805 U......Page 806 V......Page 807 Z......Page 808 Drs. Paul L. Kaufman, Albert Alm, Leonard A Levin, Siv F. E. Nilsson, James Ver Hoeve, and Samuel Wu present the 11th Edition of the classic text Adlers Physiology of the Eye, updated to enhance your understanding of ocular function. This full-color, user-friendly edition captures the latest molecular, genetic, and biochemical discoveries and offers you unparalleled knowledge and insight into the physiology of the eye and its structures. A new organization by function, rather than anatomy, helps you make a stronger connection between physiological principles and clinical practice; and more than 1,000 great new full-color illustrations help clarify complex concepts. You can also access the complete contents online at (http://www.expertconsult.com) www.expertconsult.com . The new and improved Adlers makes mastering the basic science of the eye engaging and easy