Additive Manufacturing of Metals: From Fundamental Technology to Rocket Nozzles, Medical Implants, and Custom Jewelry (Springer Series in Materials Science (258))

This engaging volume presents the exciting new technology of additive manufacturing (AM) of metal objects for a broad audience of academic and industry researchers, manufacturing professionals, undergraduate and graduate students, hobbyists, and artists. Innovative applications ranging from rocket nozzles to custom jewelry to medical implants illustrate a new world of freedom in design and fabrication, creating objects otherwise not possible by conventional means. The author describes the various methods and advanced metals used to create high value components, enabling readers to choose which process is best for them. Of particular interest is how harnessing the power of lasers, electron beams, and electric arcs, as directed by advanced computer models, robots, and 3D printing systems, can create otherwise unattainable objects. A timeline depicting the evolution of metalworking, accelerated by the computer and information age, ties AM metal technology to the rapid evolution of global technology trends. Charts, diagrams, and illustrations complement the text to describe the diverse set of technologies brought together in the AM processing of metal. Extensive listing of terms, definitions, and acronyms provides the reader with a quick reference guide to the language of AM metal processing. The book directs the reader to a wealth of internet sites providing further reading and resources, such as vendors and service providers, to jump start those interested in taking the first steps to establishing AM metal capability on whatever scale. The appendix provides hands-on example exercises for those ready to engage in experiential self-directed learning. Provides a solid introduction to the fundamental technologies utilized in AM metal processing, ranging from 3D computer models to lasers, electron beams, and computer controlled AM machines Offers the reader a guide to speaking the language of AM metal, with links to additional reading, references, resources, and service providers Illustrates how a new generation of designers and engineers are thinking outside the box to create the future of manufacturing through innovative applications and the use of advanced materials Preface 6 Acknowledgements 11 Contents 12 About the Author 17 Acronyms 19 AM Road Map and Hitchhiker’s Guide 22 1 Envision 24 Abstract 24 1.1 Evolution of Metalworking 25 1.2 Advent of Computers 27 1.3 Invention of 3D Printing 28 1.4 Key Take Away Points 29 2 Additive Manufacturing Metal, the Art of the Possible 30 Abstract 30 2.1 AM Destinations: Novel Applications and Designs 30 2.2 Artistic 32 2.3 Personalized 34 2.4 Medical 36 2.5 Aerospace 39 2.6 Automotive 42 2.7 Industrial Applications Molds and Tooling 44 2.8 Remanufacture and Repair 45 2.9 Scanning and Reverse Engineering 47 2.10 Software 49 2.11 Engineered Structures 50 2.12 Functionally Graded Structures and Intermetallic Materials 51 2.13 Technology Demonstration 53 2.14 Hybrid Additive/Subtractive Systems 54 2.15 Key Take Away Points 55 3 On the Road to AM 57 Abstract 57 3.1 You are Here → 57 3.2 AM Metal Machines, the Vehicles to Take You There 59 3.3 Market and Technology Drivers 66 3.4 A Pocket Translator: The Language of AM 69 3.5 Key Take Away Points 70 4 Understanding Metal for Additive Manufacturing 71 Abstract 71 4.1 Structure 72 4.1.1 Solid, Liquid, Gas, and Sometimes Plasma 72 4.1.2 Elements and Crystals 73 4.2 Physical Properties 76 4.2.1 Thermal Properties 76 4.2.2 Mechanical Properties 77 4.2.3 Electrical, Magnetic, and Optical Properties 78 4.3 Chemistry and Metallurgy 79 4.3.1 Physical Metallurgy 79 4.3.2 Ease of Fabrication 81 4.3.3 Process Metallurgy 81 4.3.4 Sintered Microstructures 82 4.3.5 Solidification Microstructures 84 4.3.6 Bulk Properties 90 4.4 Forms of Metal 91 4.4.1 Commercial Shapes 91 4.4.2 Metal Powder 93 4.4.3 Wire and Electrodes 99 4.4.4 Graded Materials 100 4.4.5 Composites, Intermetallic, and Metallic Glass 101 4.4.6 Recycled Metal 102 4.4.7 Recycle and Reuse of AM Metal Powders 103 4.5 Key Take Away Points 104 5 Lasers, Electron Beams, Plasma Arcs 106 Abstract 106 5.1 The Molten Pool 106 5.2 Lasers 108 5.3 Electron Beams 111 5.4 Electric and Plasma Arcs 114 5.5 Hybrid Heat Sources 117 5.6 Key Take Away Points 117 6 Computers, Solid Models, and Robots 119 Abstract 119 6.1 Computer-Aided Design 120 6.2 Computer-Aided Engineering 125 6.3 Computer-Aided Manufacturing 129 6.4 Computerized Numerical Control 131 6.5 Robotics 132 6.6 Monitoring and Real-Time Control 134 6.7 Remote Autonomous Operations 135 6.8 Key Take Away Points 136 7 Origins of 3D Metal Printing 138 Abstract 138 7.1 Plastic Prototyping and 3D Printing 139 7.2 Weld Cladding and 3D Weld Metal Buildup 142 7.3 Laser Cladding 144 7.4 Powder Metallurgy 145 7.5 Key Take Away Points 147 8 Current System Configurations 149 Abstract 149 8.1 Laser Beam Powder Bed Fusion Systems 152 8.1.1 Advantages of PBF-L 153 8.1.2 Limitations of PBF-L 158 8.2 Laser Beam Directed Energy Deposition Systems 165 8.2.1 Advantages of DED-L 169 8.2.2 Limitations of DED-L 173 8.3 Additive Manufacturing with Electron Beams 175 8.3.1 Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion Systems 175 8.4 Electron Beam-Directed Energy Deposition Systems 179 8.5 3D Metal Printing with Arc Welding Systems 184 8.6 Other AM Metal Technology 189 8.6.1 Binder Jet Technology 190 8.6.2 Plastic Tooling in Support of Metal Fabrication 192 8.6.3 Plastic and Wax Printing Combined with Casting 192 8.6.4 Ultrasonic Consolidation 193 8.6.5 Cold Spray Technology 193 8.6.6 Nano and Micro Scale Methods 194 8.7 Key Take Away Points 195 9 Inspiration to 3D Design 198 Abstract 198 9.1 Inspired Design 198 9.2 Elements of Design 201 9.2.1 Material Selection 202 9.2.2 Process Selection 206 9.3 Solid Freeform Design 207 9.3.1 Design Freedom Offered by AM 211 9.3.2 AM Metal Design Constraints 215 9.4 Additional Design Requirements 218 9.4.1 Support Structure Design 218 9.4.2 Design of Fixtures, Jigs, and Tooling 220 9.4.3 Test Specimen Design 221 9.4.4 Prototype Design 221 9.4.5 Hybrid Design 222 9.5 Cost Analysis 222 9.6 Key Take Away Points 226 10 Process Development 227 Abstract 227 10.1 Parameter Selection 227 10.2 Parameter Optimization 232 10.3 Specifying Pre-build and Monitoring Procedures 239 10.3.1 Monitoring of Process Quality 241 10.3.2 In-Process Part Quality Monitoring 242 10.4 Repair or Restart Procedures 243 10.5 Key Take Away Points 244 11 Building, Post-Processing, and Inspecting 245 Abstract 245 11.1 Building the Part 245 11.2 Post-Processing and Finishing 246 11.3 Bulk Deposit Defects 250 11.4 Dimensional Accuracy, Shrinkage, and Distortion 258 11.5 Inspection, Quality, and Testing of AM Metal Parts 258 11.5.1 Nondestructive Test Methods 259 11.5.2 Destructive Test Methods 262 11.5.3 Form, Fit, Function, and Proof Testing 265 11.6 Standards and Certification 266 11.7 Key Take Away Points 268 12 Trends in AM, Government, Industry, Research, Business 270 Abstract 270 12.1 Government and Community 271 12.2 University and Corporate Research 279 12.3 Industrial Applications 283 12.4 Business and Commerce 290 12.5 Intellectual Property, Security, and Regulation 296 12.6 Social and Global Trends 302 12.6.1 Diffusion of Power 304 12.6.2 Demographics, Information, Mobility, Education, Connectivity 304 12.6.3 Food, Water, Energy, Population Growth 305 12.7 Trends in Additive Manufacturing 305 12.7.1 Top AM Technology and Market Destinations 306 12.7.2 The First Steps Toward AM Metal 307 Professional Society and Organization Links 308 AM Machine and Service Resource Links 309 Welding Equipment and Consumables Suppliers 309 Additive Manufacturing Machine Builders and Service Providers 309 Metal Powder Manufacturers 310 Other useful Web Sites with Information, Articles and Links to AM 310 Appendix A: Safety in Configuring a 3D Metal Printing Shop 312 Appendix B: Exercises in Metal Fusion 319 Appendix C: OpenSCAD Programming Example 323 Appendix D: 3D Printer Control Code Example 327 Appendix E: Building an Arc Based 3D Shape Welding System 328 Appendix F: Exercises in 3D Printing 329 Appendix G: Score Chart of AM Skills 332 Glossary 333 References 343 Index 347 Front Matter ....Pages i-xxvi Envision (John O. Milewski)....Pages 1-6 Additive Manufacturing Metal, the Art of the Possible (John O. Milewski)....Pages 7-33 On the Road to AM (John O. Milewski)....Pages 35-48 Understanding Metal for Additive Manufacturing (John O. Milewski)....Pages 49-83 Lasers, Electron Beams, Plasma Arcs (John O. Milewski)....Pages 85-97 Computers, Solid Models, and Robots (John O. Milewski)....Pages 99-117 Origins of 3D Metal Printing (John O. Milewski)....Pages 119-129 Current System Configurations (John O. Milewski)....Pages 131-179 Inspiration to 3D Design (John O. Milewski)....Pages 181-209 Process Development (John O. Milewski)....Pages 211-228 Building, Post-Processing, and Inspecting (John O. Milewski)....Pages 229-253 Trends in AM, Government, Industry, Research, Business (John O. Milewski)....Pages 255-292 Back Matter ....Pages 293-343