Actively Caring for Safety: The Psychological Science of Injury Prevention

Actively Caring for Safety: The Psychological Science of Injury Prevention outlines proactive applications of applied behavioural science and humanism (i.e., humanistic behaviourism) for improving health and safety. This text provides evidence-based principles for customizing effective processes for improving the human dynamics of safety and health in various locations―from home to the workplace, and throughout a community. World-renowned health/safety researcher, teacher, and consultant E. Scott Geller combines theory and principles in practical step-by-step procedures with behavioral science methods capable of enhancing safety awareness, reducing at-risk behavior, and facilitating ongoing participation in safety-related activities. Drawing upon his bestselling works Working Safe and The Psychology of Safety Handbook , this book presents a science-based and practical approach to improving attitudes and behavior for achieving an injury-free work environment. The text has been improved and updated throughout and includes additional material on a rationale for language to replace common safety-related words that stifle human engagement. Plus, critical safety-relevant information is provided on empathy, emotional intelligence, self-motivation, positive psychology, psychological safety, the dramatic benefits of promoting perceptions of personal choice, and critical distinctions between leadership and management for optimizing workplace safety and productivity. Written in an enjoyable, anecdotal, and engaging style, this is an essential read for any student, academic, researcher, or professional of health and safety. Cover Half Title Endorsements Title Copyright Dedication Contents Preface Acknowledgments About the Author Part One Orientation and Alignment Chapter 1 Choosing the Right Approach 1.1 Selecting the Best Approach 1.1.1 Behavior-Based Programs 1.1.2 Comprehensive Ergonomics 1.1.3 Engineering Changes 1.1.4 Group Problem Solving 1.1.5 Government Action (in Finland) 1.1.6 Management Audits 1.1.7 Stress Management 1.1.8 Poster Campaigns 1.1.9 Personnel Selection 1.1.10 Near Miss* Reporting 1.2 The Critical Human Element 1.3 The Folly of Choosing What Sounds Good 1.4 Relying on Research 1.5 Start with Behavior 1.6 In Summary Chapter 2 Starting with Theory 2.1 The Mission Statement 2.2 Theory as a Map 2.3 Relevance to OSH 2.4 A Basic Mission and Theory 2.5 Behavior-Based vs. Person-Based Approaches 2.6 The Person-Based Approach 2.7 The Behavior-Based Approach 2.8 Considering Cost Effectiveness 2.8.1 Integrating Approaches 2.9 In Summary Chapter 3 Paradigm Shifts for a Total Safety Culture 3.1 The Old Three Es 3.1.1 Three Other Es 3.2 Shifting Paradigms 3.2.1 From Government Regulation to Corporate Responsibility 3.2.2 From Failure Focused to Achievement Focused 3.2.3 From Outcome Focused to Behavior Focused 3.2.4 From Top-Down Control to Bottom-Up Involvement 3.2.5 From Rugged Individualism to Interdependent Teamwork 3.2.6 From a Piecemeal to a Systems Approach 3.2.7 From Fault Finding to Fact Finding 3.2.8 From Reactive to Proactive 3.2.9 From Quick Fix to Continuous Improvement 3.2.10 From Priority to Value 3.2.11 Enduring Values 3.3 In Summary Part Two Human Barriers to Safety Chapter 4 The Complexity of People 4.1 Fighting Human Nature 4.1.1 Dimensions of Human Nature 4.2 Cognitive Failures 4.2.1 Capture Errors 4.2.2 Description Errors 4.2.3 Loss-of-Activation Errors 4.2.4 Mode Errors 4.2.5 Mistakes and Calculated Risks 4.3 Interpersonal Factors 4.3.1 Peer Influence 4.3.2 Power of Authority 4.4 In Summary Chapter 5 Sensation, Perception, and Perceived Risk 5.1 Selective Sensation or Perception 5.1.1 Biased by Context 5.1.2 Biased by Our Past 5.1.3 Relevance to Achieving a TSC 5.2 Perceived Risk 5.2.1 Real vs. Perceived Risk 5.2.2 The Power of Perceived Choice 5.2.3 Familiarity Breeds Complacency 5.2.4 Sympathy for Victims 5.2.5 Understood and Controllable Hazards 5.2.6 Acceptable Consequences 5.2.7 Sense of Fairness 5.2.8 Risk Compensation 5.2.9 Implications of Risk Compensation 5.2.10 Critical Impact of Perceived Choice 5.3 In Summary Chapter 6 Stress vs. Distress 6.1 What Is Stress? 6.1.1 Constructive or Destructive? 6.1.2 The Eyes of the Beholder 6.2 Identifying Stressors 6.3 Coping with Stressors 6.3.1 Person Factors 6.3.2 Fit for Stressors 6.3.3 Perceived Choice 6.3.4 Social Factors 6.4 Attributional Bias 6.4.1 The Fundamental Attribution Error 6.4.2 The Self-Serving Bias 6.5 In Summary Part Three Behavior-Based Psychology Chapter 7 Basic Principles 7.1 Primacy of Behavior 7.1.1 Reducing At-Risk Behaviors 7.1.2 Increasing Safe Behaviors 7.2 Learning from Experience 7.2.1 Classical Conditioning 7.2.2 Operant Conditioning 7.2.3 Observational Learning 7.2.4 Overlapping Types of Learning 7.3 In Summary Chapter 8 Identifying Critical Behaviors 8.1 The DO IT Process 8.2 Defining Target Behaviors 8.2.1 What Is Behavior? 8.2.2 Describing Behaviors 8.2.3 Multiple Behaviors 8.3 Observing Behavior 8.3.1 A Personal Example 8.3.2 Using the Critical Behavior Checklist 8.4 Two Basic Approaches 8.4.1 Starting Small 8.4.2 Observing Multiple Behaviors 8.5 In Summary Chapter 9 Behavioral Safety Analysis 9.1 Reducing Behavioral Discrepancy 9.1.1 Can the Task Be Simplified? 9.1.2 Is a Quick Fix Available? 9.1.3 Is Safe Behavior Punished? 9.1.4 Is At-Risk Behavior Rewarded? 9.1.5 Are Extra Consequences Used Effectively? 9.1.6 Is There a Skill Discrepancy? 9.1.7 What Kind of Training Is Needed? 9.1.8 Is the Person Right for the Job? 9.1.9 In Summary 9.2 Behavior-Based Safety Training 9.3 Intervention and the Flow of Behavior Change 9.3.1 Three Types of Behavior 9.3.2 Three Kinds of Intervention Strategies 9.3.3 The Flow of Behavior Change 9.3.4 Accountability vs. Responsibility 9.4 In Summary Part Four Behavior-Based Intervention Chapter 10 Intervening with Activators 10.1 Principle #1: Specify the Desired Behavior 10.2 Principle #2: Maintain Salience with Novelty 10.2.1 Habituation 10.2.2 Warning Beepers: A Common Work Example 10.3 Principle #3: Vary the Message 10.3.1 Changeable Signs 10.3.2 Worker-Designed Safety Slogans 10.4 Principle #4: Involve the Target Audience 10.4.1 The “Flash for Life” 10.4.2 The Airline Lifesaver 10.5 Principle #5: Activate Close to Response Opportunity 10.6 Principle #6: Implicate Consequences 10.6.1 Incentives vs. Disincentives 10.6.2 Setting Goals for Consequences 10.7 In Summary Chapter 11 Intervening with Consequences 11.1 The Power of Consequences 11.1.1 Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Consequences 11.1.2 Internal vs. External Consequences 11.2 Managing Consequences for OSH 11.2.1 The Case against Negative Consequences 11.2.2 Discipline and Involvement 11.3 “Dos” and “Don’ts” of Safety Rewards 11.3.1 Doing It Wrong 11.3.2 Doing It Right 11.3.3 An Exemplary Incentive/Reward Program 11.3.4 Safety Thank-You Cards 11.4 In Summary Chapter 12 Intervening as an Actively Caring Coach 12.1 Intervening as a Safety Coach 12.1.1 “C” for Care 12.1.2 “O” for Observe 12.1.3 “A” for Analyze 12.1.4 “C” for Communicate 12.1.5 “H” for Help 12.2 In Summary Chapter 13 Intervening with Supportive Conversation 13.1 The Power of Conversation 13.2 The Art of Improving Conversation 13.2.1 Do Not Look Back 13.2.2 Seek Commitment 13.2.3 Stop and Listen 13.2.4 Ask Questions First 13.2.5 Transition from Nondirective to Directive 13.2.6 Beware of Bias 13.3 Recognizing Desirable Behavior 13.3.1 Recognize During or Immediately after Desirable Behavior 13.3.2 Make Recognition Personal for Both Parties 13.3.3 Connect Specific Behavior with General Higher-Level Praise 13.3.4 Deliver Recognition Privately and One-on-One 13.3.5 Let Recognition Stand Alone and Soak In 13.3.6 Use Tangibles for Symbolic Value Only 13.3.7 Special Advantages of Secondhand Recognition 13.4 Receiving Recognition Well 13.4.1 Avoid Denial and Disclaimer Statements 13.4.2 Listen Attentively with Genuine Appreciation 13.4.3 Relive Recognition Later for Self-Motivation 13.4.4 Show Sincere Appreciation 13.4.5 Recognize the Person for Recognizing You 13.4.6 Embrace the Reciprocity Principle 13.4.7 Ask for Recognition When Deserved but Not Forthcoming 13.5 In Summary Part Five Actively Caring for People Chapter 14 Understanding Actively Caring 14.1 What is Actively Caring? 14.1.1 Three Ways to Actively Care 14.1.2 Why Categorize AC4P Behaviors? 14.1.3 An Illustrative Anecdote 14.1.4 A Hierarchy of Needs 14.2 The Psychology of Actively Caring 14.2.1 Lessons from Research 14.3 A Consequence Analysis of AC4P Behavior 14.3.1 The Power of Context 14.4 Context at Work 14.5 In Summary Chapter 15 The Person-Based Approach to Actively Caring 15.1 Actively Caring from the Inside 15.1.1 Person Traits vs. States 15.1.2 AC4P States 15.2 Actively Caring and Emotional Intelligence 15.2.1 Safety, Emotions, and Impulse Control 15.2.2 Nurturing EQ 15.3 In Summary Chapter 16 Increasing Occurrences of AC4P Behavior 16.1 Enhancing the AC4P Person-States 16.1.1 Self-Esteem 16.1.2 Self-Efficacy 16.1.3 Personal Control 16.1.4 Optimism 16.1.5 Belonging 16.2 Directly Increasing Occurrences of AC4P Behavior 16.2.1 Education and Training 16.2.2 Consequences for Actively Caring 16.2.3 The Reciprocity Principle 16.2.4 Commitment and Consistency 16.3 In Summary Part Six Putting It All Together Chapter 17 Promoting High-Performance Teamwork 17.1 Cultivating High-Performance Teamwork 17.1.1 Selecting Team Members 17.1.2 Clarify the Assignment 17.1.3 Establish a Team Charter 17.1.4 Develop an Action Plan 17.1.5 Make it Happen 17.1.6 Evaluate Team Performance 17.1.7 Disband, Restructure, or Renew the Team 17.2 In Summary Chapter 18 Evaluating for Continuous Improvement 18.1 Measuring the Right Stuff 18.2 Developing a Comprehensive Evaluation Process 18.2.1 What to Measure? 18.2.2 Evaluating Environmental Conditions 18.2.3 Evaluating Work Practices 18.2.4 Evaluating Person Factors 18.2.5 Evaluating Costs and Benefits 18.3 You Can’t Measure Everything 18.4 In Summary Chapter 19 Obtaining and Maintaining Engagement 19.1 Starting the Process 19.1.1 Management Support 19.1.2 Creating a Safety Steering Team 19.1.3 Developing Evaluation Procedures 19.1.4 Initiating an Education and Training Process 19.1.5 Sustaining the Process 19.1.6 Follow-Up Instruction/Booster Sessions 19.1.7 Troubleshooting and Fine-Tuning 19.2 Cultivating Continuous Support 19.2.1 Where Are the Safety Leaders? 19.3 Overcoming Resistance to Change 19.4 Psychological Safety 19.4.1 Relevance for OSH 19.4.2 Cultivating Psychological Safety 19.4.3 Great Leaders and Psychological Safety 19.5 In Summary Chapter 20 Reviewing the Principles 20.1 Fifty Key Principles 20.1.1 Principle 1: Safety Should Be Internally—Not Externally—Driven 20.1.2 Principle 2: Culture Change Requires People to Understand the Principles and Know How to Use Them 20.1.3 Principle 3: Champions of a TSC Will Emanate from Those Who Teach the Principles and Procedures 20.1.4 Principle 4: Leadership Can Be Developed by Teaching and Demonstrating the Qualities of Effective Leaders 20.1.5 Principle 5: Focus Recognition, Education, and Training on People Reluctant but Willing, Rather Than on Those Actively Resisting 20.1.6 Principle 6: Giving People Opportunities for Choice Can Increase Commitment, Ownership, and Engagement 20.1.7 Principle 7: A TSC Requires Continuous Attention to Factors in Three Domains: Environment, Behavior, and Person 20.1.8 Principle 8: Do Not Count On Commonsense for Safety Improvement 20.1.9 Principle 9: Safety Incentive/Reward Programs Should Focus on the Process Rather Than on Outcomes 20.1.10 Principle 10: Safety Should Not be Considered a Priority but a Value with No Compromise 20.1.11 Principle 11: Safety Is a Continuous Fight with Human Nature 20.1.12 Principle 12: Behavior Is Learned from Three Basic Processes: Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Observational Learning 20.1.13 Principle 13: People View Behavior as Correct and Appropriate to the Degree They See Others Doing It 20.1.14 Principle 14: People Will Blindly Follow Authority, Even When the Mandate Runs Counter to Good Judgment and Social Responsibility 20.1.15 Principle 15: Group Participation Can Be Enhanced by Increasing Personal Responsibility, Individual Accountability, Group Cohesion, and Interdependence 20.1.16 Principle 16: On-the-Job Behavioral Observation and Interpersonal Behavioral Feedback Are Key to Achieving a TSC 20.1.17 Principle 17: Behavior-Based Safety Is a Continuous DO IT Process with D = Define Target Behaviors, O = Observe Target Behaviors, I = Intervene to Improve Behaviors, and T = Test Impact of the Intervention 20.1.18 Principle 18: Behavior Is Directed by Activators and Motivated by Consequences 20.1.19 Principle 19: Intervention Impact Is Influenced by the Amount of Response Information, Participation, and Social Support, as Well as External Consequences 20.1.20 Principle 20: Extra and External Consequences Should Not Over-Justify the Target Behavior 20.1.21 Principle 21: People Are Motivated to Maximize Positive Consequences (Rewards) and Minimize Negative Consequences (Costs) 20.1.22 Principle 22: Behavior Is Motivated by Six Categories of Consequences: Positive vs. Negative, Natural vs. Extra, and Internal vs. External 20.1.23 Principle 23: Negative Consequences Have Four Undesirable Side-Effects: Escape, Aggression, Apathy, and Countercontrol 20.1.24 Principle 24: Natural Variation in Behavior Can Lead to a Belief That Negative Consequences Have More Impact Than Positive Consequences 20.1.25 Principle 25: Long-Term Behavior Change Requires People to Change “Inside” as Well as “Outside” 20.1.26 Principle 26: All Perception Is Biased and Reflects Personal History, Prejudices, Motives, and Expectations 20.1.27 Principle 27: Perceived Risk Is Lowered When a Hazard Is Perceived as Familiar, Understood, Controllable, and Preventable 20.1.28 Principle 28: The Slogan “All Injuries Are Preventable” Is False and Reduces Perceived Risk 20.1.29 Principle 29: People Compensate for Increases in Perceived Safety by Taking More Risks 20.1.30 Principle 30: When People Evaluate At-Risk Behavior of Others, They Focus on Internal Factors; When Evaluating Their Own At-Risk Behavior, They Focus on External Factors 20.1.31 Principle 31: When Succeeding, People Over-Attribute Internal Factors, but When Failing, People Over-Attribute External Factors 20.1.32 Principle 32: People Feel More Personal Control and Perceived Choice When Working to Achieve Success Than When Working to Avoid Failure 20.1.33 Principle 33: Stressors Lead to Positive Stress or Negative Distress Depending on Appraisal of Personal Control 20.1.34 Principle 34: In a Total Safety Culture Everyone Goes Beyond the Call of Duty for OSH—They Actively Care for Safety 20.1.35 Principle 35: Actively Caring Should Be Planned and Purposeful and Focus on Environment, Person, or Behavior 20.1.36 Principle 36: Direct, Behavior-Focused AC4P Is Proactive and Most Challenging and Requires Effective Communication Skills 20.1.37 Principle 37: Safety Coaching That Starts with Caring and Involves Observing, Analyzing, and Communicating Leads to Helping 20.1.38 Principle 38: Actively Caring Can Be Increased Indirectly with Procedures That Enhance Self-Esteem, Belonging, and Empowerment 20.1.39 Principle 39: Empowerment Is Facilitated with Increases in Self-Efficacy, Response-Efficacy, and Outcome Expectancy 20.1.40 Principle 40: When People Feel Empowered, Their Safe Behavior Spreads to Other Situations and Behaviors 20.1.41 Principle 41: AC4P Behavior Can Be Increased Directly by Educating People about Factors Contributing to Bystander Apathy 20.1.42 Principle 42: As the Number of Observers of a Crisis Increases, the Probability of Helping Decreases 20.1.43 Principle 43: AC4P Behavior Is Facilitated When Appreciated and Inhibited When Unappreciated 20.1.44 Principle 44: A Positive Reaction to AC4P Behavior Can Increase the Benefactor’s Self-Esteem, Empowerment, and Sense of Belonging 20.1.45 Principle 45: The Universal Norms of Consistency and Reciprocity Motivate Everyday Behaviors, Including AC4P Behavior 20.1.46 Principle 46: Once People Make a Commitment, They Encounter Internal and External Pressures to Think and Act Consistently with Their Position 20.1.47 Principle 47: The Consistency Norm Is Responsible for the Impact of the “Foot-in-the-Door” Technique 20.1.48 Principle 48: Managers Hold People Accountable; Leaders Inspire Self-Accountability 20.1.49 Principle 49: When Numbers from Program Evaluations Are Meaningful to the Participants, They Can Direct and Motivate Intervention Improvement 20.1.50 Principle 50: A Total Safety Culture Requires Psychological Safety 20.2 In Summary Glossary of Key Terms References Index