A New History of Ireland, Volume VII: Ireland, 1921-84

A New History of Ireland is the largest scholarly project in modern Irish history. In 9 volumes, it provides a comprehensive new synthesis of modern scholarship on every aspect of Irish history and prehistory, from the earliest geological and archaeological evidence, through the Middle Ages, down to the present day. Volume VII covers a period of major significance in Ireland's history. It outlines the division of Ireland and the eventual establishment of the Irish Republic. It provides comprehensive coverage of political developments, north and south, as well as offering chapters on the economy, literature in English and Irish, the Irish language, the visual arts, emigration and immigration, and the history of women. The contributors to this volume, all specialists in their field, provide the most comprehensive treatment of these developments of any single-volume survey of twentieth-century Ireland CONTENTS 10 PREFACE 6 CONTRIBUTORS 37 MAPS 40 ILLUSTRATIONS 41 ABBREVIATIONS AND CONVENTIONS 49 INTRODUCTION: IRELAND, 1921–84 56 I: FROM TREATY TO CIVIL WAR, 1921–2 86 Political background, 1914–21 86 The Anglo—Irish treaty, December 1921 86 The northern problem 88 Pressure to sign 89 Press and other reactions to the treaty 89 The dail, Sinn Fein, I.R.A., and I.R.B. 91 The treaty debates: Collins and the case for acceptance 92 De Valera and the case against acceptance 93 Personal and temperamental differences 94 Military attitudes 95 I.R.B. influence; the north 96 The provisional government: problems of administration and legitimacy 97 Efforts to avoid a split 99 Developments within the I.R.A.; the provisional government army 100 Clashes between pro- and anti-treaty I.R.A. 102 Army convention, 26 March 1922 103 'Army officers' statement', 1 May 104 The election pact 104 The draft constitution; British reactions 105 Election results 106 Assassination of Sir Henry Wilson; British pressure for action 107 The northern government; the primacy of security 108 The special constabulary; violence and instability 109 British misgivings about the northern government 110 The provisional government and northern affairs; border crises 111 The first Craig-Collins pact, 21 January 1922 112 The second pact, 30 March: 'Peace is today declared' 112 Plans for a joint I.R.A. northern offensive 113 Isolation of the northern minority 114 Collins and the north; the impact of civil war 114 II: CIVIL WAR AND AFTERMATH, 1922–4 116 Attack on the Four Courts, 28 June 1922 116 O'Connell Street; death of Brugha 117 Desultory activity outside Dublin 118 Expanding the pro-treaty army; problems in recruitment 119 Military and political leadership 120 The anti-treaty forces: shortcomings in strategy 121 Barriers to republican success 122 Lack of popular support and political policy 123 The campaigns of summer 1922: Limerick 124 Pro-treaty successes in Munster 125 Anti-treaty forces resort to guerrilla warfare 127 The deaths of Griffith and Collins 128 The third dáil 129 Formation of a republican government 130 Loss of initiative by pro-treaty forces; Kerry; Mayo 130 Executions; a 'national vendetta' 132 The Irish Free State established, 6 December 1922 133 Problems of control and direction 134 Disintegration of the republican military effort; attacks on railways 134 Attacks on unionists and senators 135 Liam Deasy's appeal for a ceasefire, January 1923 135 Reprisals in Kerry 136 Liam Lynch's hopes of victory; his death, 10 April 1923 136 Ceasefire, May 1923 137 Government problems: public order, prisoners, demobilisation 138 Republican strategy; de Valera resumes political activity 138 The legacy of civil war: material damage; political divisions 139 The end of revolution 140 Effects on Northern Ireland: I.R.A. activity diminishes 140 British attention turns southward 141 Southern government policy becomes less active 141 The northern minority is 'abandoned' 143 Siege mentality persists 144 III: LAND AND PEOPLE, c. 1926 147 Partition and human geography: the border 147 Administrative units: the county's status reinforced 148 The rural landscape: population, settlement, and land use 148 Smallholdings 149 Arable farming 150 Dairy farming and cattle production 150 Sheep and pigs; poultry 151 Sale of livestock; the fair 152 Manufacture: Northern Ireland: linen and shipbuilding 152 The Free State: food, drink, tobacco, clothing 154 Energy sources: coal, turf, electricity; the Shannon scheme 156 Mining and quarrying 157 Transport development 157 Population change 158 Urbanisation and migration 159 The effect of topography 159 Emigration 160 Age and gender structures 160 Marital status 161 Housing conditions 162 Religion 162 Language 163 Regional diversity: the east—west division 163 Government aid; the west remains relatively deprived 164 IV: POLITICS AND THE STATE, 1922–32 171 Achievements of the 'first decade of national freedom' 171 The framework of Free State politics: treaty and constitution 172 Symbols of subordination 172 Democratic structure: proportional representation, referendum, initiative 173 Executive council and 'extern' ministers 174 University seats; the seanad 175 Changing the constitution 175 Republican institutions 176 Electoral politics: the 1923 general election 177 The new state accepted; Labour party difficulties; smaller parties 178 De Valera's response; a pattern emerges 180 The agenda of Cosgrave's government 181 Restoration of civil authority: release of prisoners 178 Disorder and crime: the Garda Siochana 182 The army mutiny 183 Political consequences 187 External relations 189 Independence within the commonwealth 190 Relations with the United Kingdom 190 The boundary commission 191 Innovations in government: the judicial system 194 The administrative system 195 Local government; centrally appointed managers 196 Economic conservatism 198 Agriculture, land purchase, and Patrick Hogan 198 Industry and Patrick McGilligan 200 Social policy 200 Education 201 Public morality: liquor licensing, censorship, pluralism 202 Fianna Fáil 204 The 1927 general election; the assassination of Kevin O'Higgins 205 Fianna Fáil takes the oath and enters the dáil 206 Divisions between the major parties 207 The 1932 general election; an uneventful transfer of power 209 The Cosgrave legacy 210 V: THE REPUBLICANISATION OF IRISH SOCIETY, 1932–48 212 The 1932 general election; apprehensions and outcome 212 The new government and its leader 212 Fianna Fáil's agenda; limitations on its freedom of action 213 Fianna Fáil and Labour 214 Sovereignty 214 Protectionism; diversification of agriculture; social welfare 215 The 1933 general election; representation of the poor and excluded 216 Cumann na nGaedheal in opposition 217 Extraparliamentary bodies: the Blueshirt movement 218 Comparisons with continental fascism 219 Cosgrave and O'Duffy 219 A weakened party 220 Republicanisation: the political and social component 221 Legislation 222 A catholic and Gaelic identity 223 The constitutional component: legislative steps 224 The new constitution; 'illiberal nationalism' 225 The position of women; criticisms 227 Other responses 230 British reaction to change in Ireland 231 Seán MacEntee and partition 231 The agreements of 1938 233 The 1938 general election 233 Economic difficulties; the 1939 budget 233 Conditions of economic progress (1940) 235 Irish sovereignty during world war 235 Action against the I.R.A. 237 Collusive neutrality 237 Corporatism and centralisation 238 Resurgence of smaller parties; crises of Fine Gael and Labour 239 Problems for Fianna Fáil 240 The position of MacEntee 241 Postwar: the new context of partition 241 Exhaustion, division, and challenge 242 A 'welfare gap' emerges between north and south 243 The 1948 general election; continuity in values 244 VI: NORTHERN IRELAND, 1920–25 246 Formation of a devolved regional government 246 Unionists' qualified welcome for partition 247 Grounds for hope 247 Institutional limitations of the northern government 248 Political problems: southern attitudes; the nationalist minority; abstentionism 249 Security problems; the special constabulary 250 British negotiations with the south, 1921—2; unionist fears, nationalist hopes 251 Establishing a system of law enforcement 252 Control of policing deferred; effects of the truce, 1921 252 Belfast riots, July—September 1921; lack of a coherent security policy 252 Transfer of powers to the northern government 254 The Anglo-Irish treaty; the boundary commission 255 Local councils 256 Security policy; the first Craig–Collins pact 257 Collins and the north 258 Border incidents 258 Military advisers and special powers 259 The second Craig–Collins pact 260 Escalating violence, April–May 1922 262 Government countermeasures 263 British misgivings 264 The Belleek–Pettigo incident 265 The Tallents investigation, June 1922 265 Improvement in security; Collins's 'peace policy' 266 Nationalist disillusionment with the use of force 267 Effects and legacy of the security crisis 268 Improving relations between nationalists and security forces 270 Relaxation of security; proposed disbandment of 'A' and 'C' specials 270 The boundary commission 271 Abolition of proportional representation for local government elections 273 Collins protests; Westminster vetos the abolition bill 275 The bill eventually passes; Britain retreats from control 276 Redrawing of electoral boundaries 277 The local government elections of 1924 279 State education 280 Catholic non-cooperation, 1921–2 280 The 1923 education act 280 The foundations of the Northern Ireland administration laid 281 VII: NORTHERN IRELAND, 1925–39 284 A new departure? 284 Conflict and recession 284 Government, civil service, parliament, and society 285 Signs of strain in the 19305: a declining leadership 287 The Westminster connection: constraint and lack of restraint 287 Public finance 288 Social services: the 'step by step' policy 291 Housing 292 Public health 294 Economy in security spending: the crisis of 1932 295 The Belfast riots of 1935 298 Bias in the administration of law and order 299 Levels of violence 300 Catholic under-representation in police and civil service 301 Nationalists and the Northern Ireland parliament 302 The National League of the North founded, 1928 303 Unionist responses 305 Education 306 Abolition of proportional representation in parliamentary elections, 1929 306 Nationalist withdrawal from Stormont 308 Renewed campaigns against partition, 1937–9 309 The catholic church and Northern Ireland 309 The Northern Ireland Labour Party 312 Independent unionists 313 North–south relations 314 Southern influence on the north 316 A widening gulf: the entrenchment of different cultures 317 British passivity 319 VIII: NORTHERN IRELAND, 1939–45 320 Northern Ireland enters the war? 320 A complacent and ineffective cabinet 321 Security measures 322 Pressure for talks with Dublin 323 Northern nationalist responses 324 A new prime minister: J, M. Andrews 325 The Belfast blitz, April–May 1941; the issue of conscription 326 Belfast corporation 327 Industrial unrest; labour relations 328 Increasing expenditure on social services and reconstruction 329 Pressure within unionism for change 330 The revolt of January 1943; Andrews resists 331 Brooke's new government, May 1943 333 Education; the dismissal of Corkey 335 Belfast corporation: a solution 335 Housing programme 336 Brooke as prime minister: personal factors and personal style 337 Reconciliation with the 'old guard' 338 Plans for the postwar years: social services 338 The economy 339 Brooke's proposals for conscription, 1945 340 Relations between Westminster and Stormont 341 Traditional political perspectives survive 342 Protestants, catholics, and the war effort 342 The I.R.A. in Northern Ireland 343 Movement away from discrimination: the housing trust 343 Family allowances; the movement of labour; dominion status? 344 The 1945 general election: a shock for the Unionist party 345 IX: TO THE DECLARATION OF THE REPUBLIC AND THE IRELAND ACT, 1945–9 346 Reviser's note 346 Social and psychological change; enduring political problems 346 Partition; intercommunal relations; attitudes to Britain 347 Phases in attitudes to the north–south problem 347 Politics in independent Ireland in 1945 347 Decline and fall of the Fianna Fáil hegemony 348 Postwar hopes; the impact of strikes, shortages, and rising prices 349 Criticisms of administrative practice: the Ward and Locke inquiries 350 The impact of Clann na Poblachta 352 The 1948 general election; the decisive role of National Labour 353 John A. Costello and the inter-party government 354 Noel Browne: the campaign against tuberculosis 355 Northern Ireland: the 1945 general election 355 Economic problems; legislation 355 Social welfare: national insurance, health services, housing 356 Education: the 1947 act 357 The constitutional status of Ireland; pressure for definition 358 Costello's statement of 7 September 1948 359 Cordial Dublin–Westminster relations 360 Less cordial Stormont–Westminster relations 360 The 1949 Stormont general election 361 The Ireland bill, 1949; a reversal of alliances 361 X: ECONOMIC CRISIS AND POLITICAL COLD WAR, 1949–57 363 Political instability in the Republic 363 The 'battle of Baltinglass' 363 The 'mother-and-child scheme crisis' 363 Church–state relations 365 The 1951 general election: an insecure Fianna Fáil government 366 Economic crisis 366 The 1954 general election: Costello's second government 367 Balance of payments problems; a crisis of national morale 367 Foundations for later recovery 368 The 1957 general election: Fianna Fáil obtains a safe majority 369 'Clericalism' in the Republic: Maria Duce; the Tilson case, 1950 369 The catholic bishops and public affairs 369 The Fethard-on-Sea boycott, 1957 370 A generally gloomy picture 370 Northern Ireland: increasing stability 371 Economic difficulties; assistance from Britain 372 Controversy within the Unionist party: regional and other factors 373 Education; flags and emblems; family allowances 373 A legacy of division 375 Campaigns against partition: the Republic's 'sore thumb' policy 375 Areas of north–south cooperation 376 The Republic and NATO 376 The revival of the I.R.A.; 'Saor Uladh'; attitudes in the south 376 The 1957 general election; de Valera reintroduces internment 378 XI: ECONOMIC PROGRESS AND POLITICAL PRAGMATISM, 1957–63 379 A watershed in life in the Republic 379 Economic transformation 379 External influences: foreign investment; tourism; buying of land by non-nationals 380 International organisations: membership of U.N.O. 381 Peace-keeping duties; the Congo, 1960–62 382 The question of joining the Common Market 383 Changes in Irish Catholicism: the turning-point, 1963–4 383 Internal changes: objective study of Irish society 384 Improved journalism, publishing, and broadcasting 385 Decline of censorship 385 Television opens a new era of discussion 386 Politics: a generational change in leadership 386 Referendum on proportional representation 387 Reunification of the trade union movement 388 The 1961 general election and the political balance; turnover tax 388 State visit by John F. Kennedy, 1963 389 Anglo–Irish relations: the Lane bequest; trade agreements 389 Northern Ireland: signs of weakening in entrenched attitudes 390 Election results, 1958–9; new parties and voting patterns 391 Catholics in the Unionist party? 392 XII: RECONCILIATION, RIGHTS, AND PROTESTS, 1963–8 394 Northern Ireland: Brookeborough retires, 25 March 1963 394 Terence O'Neill as new prime minister: administrative changes 394 Economic policy and planning 395 Community relations; the Campaign for Social Justice 396 The Irish Congress of Trade Unions 396 O'Neill meets Lemass at Stormont, 14 January 1965 397 New points of division: Coleraine, Craigavon 397 Misgivings within unionism; Ian Paisley 398 An atmosphere of improving relationships 398 The Republic: Declan Costello and 'The just society', May 1964 399 The 1965 general election: signs of a new era 399 Relations between Northern Ireland, the Republic, and Britain 400 Anglo-Irish trade agreement, 14 December 1965 401 XIII: THE NORTH ERUPTS, AND IRELAND ENTERS EUROPE, 1968–72 402 A chequered era: setback and division in Fianna Fáil 402 The 1969 general election: Fianna Fáil wins an increased majority 402 Redrawing electoral boundaries 403 Cabinet divisions over Northern Ireland; the arms epsiode, 1969–70 404 Religious issues: the laws against contraception 405 Community schools 406 Demonstrations and protests 407 Republican strategy: land, fishing, housing; armed robberies 408 Farmers' protests; local issues 409 Difficulties for the Garda Siochana 409 Bans lifted by the catholic church (1970) and the G.A.A. (1971) 410 Northern Ireland: the first phase of the troubles, June 1968–October 1969 410 Austin Currie; the early civil rights demonstrations 411 Derry, 5 October 1968; the spectacle of repression 412 A five-point reform programme, 22 November 1968 413 'Ulster at the crossroads'; possible rapprochement 413 The People's Democracy movement; Burntollet bridge 414 The Cameron commission; O'Neill's support eroded 415 The 1969 general election 415 Renewed disturbances, March–April 1969 416 O'Neill resigns, 28 April; Chichester-Clark becomes prime minister 417 The Derry riots, August 1969; calling-out of the B specials 418 Lynch's 'can no longer stand by' speech, 13 August 419 Disturbances in other towns; fatal rioting in Belfast 420 British intervention: troops move into Derry and Belfast, 14–16 August 420 Rolling reform; the Scarman tribunal 421 Reforms in local government and policing: the Hunt report 421 Second phase, October 1969–July 1971 422 Relations between catholics and army worsen 423 The I.R.A. split; a Provisional offensive begins 424 Right-wing unionism; elections and the streets 425 Countervailing forces: launch of the S.D.L.P., August 1970 427 Cross-community organisations; pressure from Westminster 428 Achievements of the reform programme; the idea of 'participation' 429 Brian Faulkner as prime minister; a step toward power-sharing 429 Third phase, July 1971–March 1972: renewed violence in Derry, July 1971 431 The S.D.L.P. M.P.s withdraw from Stormont 431 Reintroduction of internment, 9 August 1971: a new level of violence 432 Civil disobedience campaign; Anglo-Irish relations 433 Life in Northern Ireland 434 Faulkner renews the ban on processions, January 1972 435 'Bloody Sunday' in Derry, 30 January 435 Repercussions in the Republic and Britain 436 The road to direct rule, February–March 1972 437 Closer links between Britain and Ireland 438 Entering the European Community 439 XIV: IRELAND, 1972–84 441 End of an era: Eamon de Valera and John Charles McQuaid 441 The informal state-church consensus; signs of stress and breakdown 442 Modernisation and urbanisation of society 442 Crisis in Fianna Fáil 442 Lynch as taoiseach 443 Entering Europe: pro and con; a resounding 'Yes' 443 Economic and political benefits 447 Changes in Irish society 447 Action against the I.R.A. 448 The 1973 general election; the Fine Gael-Labour 'national coalition' 449 Erskine Childers as president, 25 June 1973–17 November 1974 450 Cearbhall O Dalaigh: an agreed president 451 Economic affairs: Common Agricultural Policy; energy crisis 451 Pluralism: the debate on contraception 452 Garret FitzGerald and the papacy 453 Defence against terrorism: emergency legislation, September 1976 455 President Ó Dálaigh and the government 456 Ó Dalaigh resigns, October 1976; Patrick Hillery succeeds 457 The 1977 general election: Fianna Fail returns to power 458 Economic strategy; the link with sterling broken; local government 459 The contraception question again: Haughey's family planning act 460 Petrol rationing and postal strike 461 Moves against Lynch 461 Pope John Paul II visits Ireland, 29 September–1 October 1979 462 Lynch resigns as Fianna Fail leader, 5 December 463 Haughey as taoiseach 463 New national wage agreement, autumn 1980; funding of Knock airport 465 Haughey meets Margaret Thatcher, 21 May 1980 466 Northern Ireland: 'dirty protest' and hunger-strike 466 The 1981 general election: Garret FitzGerald's coalition government 467 FitzGerald's 'republican crusade' for pluralism 468 The February 1982 general election; Haughey's leadership under threat 469 The influence of independent T.D.s 470 The Falklands/Malvinas war, April–June 1982; Anglo–Irish relations worsen 471 The 'G.U.B.U.' episode; the 'Dowra affair'; phone-tapping 471 Leadership crisis in Fianna Fáil 472 The November 1982 general election; a new coalition government 473 Haughey defeats his opponents 474 The abortion question; referendum, 7 September 1983 475 Continuing practical problems 476 The New Ireland Forum, 1983–4 476 The Anglo-Irish agreement, 15 November 1985 477 The context of Irish government, 1972–84; Haughey and FitzGerald 478 XV: NORTHERN IRELAND, 1972–84 480 Direct rule: internal debates in the unionist and nationalist communities 480 Phases within the period 480 Disintegration of political life 481 Lack of an internal political forum 481 Direct rule as a 'last resort': predictable reactions 481 Whitelaw as secretary of state: administrative and political problems 483 Demands on the government 484 Keeping open the lines of communication 485 'Bloody Friday' and Operation Motorman, July 1972 486 The revival of communal solidarity; 'telling'; territorial marking 486 Intensity of violence; the turning-point, 1976–7 487 The future of Northern Ireland, October 1972; the 'Irish dimension' 488 The Sunningdale agreement, December 1973 489 Responses to power-sharing 489 The 1974 Westminster general election 492 Collapse of the executive 492 The constitutional convention, 1975–6 493 The state of indigenous political parties 494 Rees's attempts to restore normality; 'Ulsterisation' and 'criminalisation' 495 Restoring the R.U.C.; The way ahead, 1975 496 Relations between government and republicans 497 Mason as secretary of state 498 Security: undercover operations, intelligence, and interrogations 498 Limited political initiatives 500 Economic initiatives: the De Lorean project 500 The Conservatives return to government, 1979 501 The Mountbatten–Warrenpoint bombings; crisis between army and police 502 The Irish-American factor 503 The government of Northern Ireland, November 1979 503 The hunger strikes, 1980–81 504 Lessons learned 606 Anglo–Irish relations: cross-border cooperation; political friction 606 James Prior; Northern Ireland: a framework for devolution 508 The New Ireland Forum 509 Anglo–Irish summits, 1983–4; Thatcher dismisses the Forum options 510 XVI: LAND AND PEOPLE, c. 1983 511 Land use 511 Holdings; demesnes 512 Buildings 512 Urban developments 513 Population 514 The shift eastward 515 Urbanisation and urban decline 515 Employment and production 516 Agriculture 517 Forestry 518 Marine resources 518 Mining and minerals 519 Water power; oil and gas 520 Energy 521 Transport: internal 521 External 522 Manufacturing: Northern Ireland 523 The Republic 524 Tourism 526 Other services 527 Patterns of location 529 Rationalisation and centralisation 529 The two states: dissimilarities 530 Local government 532 Regional disparities and regional policy 532 XVII: THE TWO ECONOMIES IN IRELAND IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 537 Ireland's economic performance in the European context 537 Ireland before independence 538 Economic failure in the twentieth rather than the nineteenth century? 540 General conformity to European standards; the 1950s trough 540 A general relative decline in living standards 543 Productivity 544 Surplus labour and migration 545 Ireland's success in creating jobs outside agriculture 547 Unemployment and emigration rates 548 Economic effects of partition; fiscal control 549 Inherited institutions; the link with sterling 550 Government spending levels; the enlarging role of the state 551 Northern Ireland: the principle of parity with Britain 553 Surge in public expenditure under direct rule 554 Agricultural prices 554 Entry into the E.E.C. 557 Industry: the Free State and the goal of self-sufficiency 558 Northern Ireland: chronic decline in linen and shipbuilding 559 The Republic misses the tide in the 1950s 560 T. K. Whitaker's Economic development, 1958 561 The role of externally owned firms 562 Industry since entry into the E.E.C. 563 The North: economic effects of political violence 563 The industrialisation of the Republic: external and indigenous owners 565 Services: an expanding share of employment 565 The end of domestic service 567 Improved economic performance in the twentieth century 567 Could Kathleen have done better? 568 Constraints: small size, location, world trends, violence 569 Policy-making 570 Postscript: the 'Celtic tiger' 571 XVIII: LITERATURE IN ENGLISH, 1921–84 572 Literature in the 1920s and 1930s 572 Few new cultural institutions in the new states 572 The Irish language 572 The Abbey and Gate Theatres 573 Censorship in independent Ireland 573 Periodicals 575 Realism in drama, novels, and short-story writing 575 Sean O'Casey 576 Liam O'Flaherty 577 Satire: Eimar O'Duffy 579 Peadar O'Donnell 579 A fictional map of Ireland; regionalism 580 Kate O'Brien's 'Mellick' 581 Cork: Corkery, O'Connor, O'Faolain 581 Austin Clarke 582 Drama after O'Casey: Johnston, Mayne, Carroll 582 Lennox Robinson 583 Shiels, Murray, Deevy 584 Yeats and Joyce 585 Literature from the 1940s to the 1960s 587 Finnegans wake, Murphy, At Swim-two-birds 587 Irish writers resort less to exile 588 Writers share the turning inward of life in wartime Ireland 589 A new cultural detente, 1957–9; flare-up of older attitudes 589 Wartime and post-war censorship 590 State assistance for the arts 591 Broadcasting, television, and expansion of the universities 591 Periodicals and institutions 592 Rapprochement between writer and society 592 Seven representative writers: Behan, Clarke, Cruise O'Brien, Kavanagh, O'Connor, O'Faolain, O'Nolan 593 Dramatists and Irish society 596 Short stories 601 Themes: nationalism; the land 601 Sex 602 Decline; isolation 603 Poetry: Kavanagh; Clarke; Murphy; Kinsella 604 Revival in Northern Ireland: drama 606 Poetry: Rodgers, MacNeice, Hewitt 609 Fiction: McLaverty, Kiely, Moore, West, Bell 610 Literature after 1968 612 State and private subsidies; the finance act, 1969; Aosdána 612 The northern troubles: novels 614 Poetry: Montague, Heaney, Simmons 614 Drama: Friel, Leonard, Thomas Murphy 617 Poetry in the Republic; the influence of Irish 619 Women writers 619 Molly Keane ('M. J. Farrell') 620 Regionalism 620 Protestant writing: William Trevor 621 XIX: IRISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, 1921–84 623 The language and public policy 623 Lack of systematic evaluation 624 The period of revolution and state-building 625 The constitutional position of Irish 626 Professions and the civil service 626 The schools 627 Third-level education 629 The Gaeltacht: the commission of 1925–6 629 The white paper of 1927–8 631 Regional measures: land improvements 632 Resettlement: creation of the Meath Gaeltacht 633 Agricultural development 633 Industrial development 635 Accounting and marketing 636 Marine products: carageen, kelp, fisheries 638 Housing: the 1929 act 640 Publishing: An Gúm and its committee 641 Textbooks and literature 642 Seán Ó Riordáin and Máirtín Ó Cadhain 644 Conserving cultural heritage: the role of the Royal Irish Academy 645 The Irish Manuscripts Commission, 1928 645 The Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1940 647 The Irish Folklore Commission, 1935 647 Northern Ireland: division and contraction 648 After the 'emergency': the task of education reappraised 649 Under-use of Irish in government and civil service 649 The Gaeltacht; Gaeltarra Éireann established, 1958 651 Comhairle na Gaeilge, 1969; broadcasting; voluntary bodies 651 Official standards for the written language: script, spelling, grammar 652 State attitudes change: the retreat from compulsion in the 1970s 654 Udarás na Gaeltachta; Bord na Gaeilge; Radió na Gaeltachta 655 Northern Ireland: state suspicion and neglect 656 Voluntary revival activities; schools; games; state funding 656 Achievements reviewed: cultural revival outstrips language revival 657 Literature: the problems of reconciling tradition and modernity 658 Realism: regional autobiography 659 Modernism; the contribution of tradition 661 Máirtín Ó Cadhain 661 Seosamh Mac Grianna and Séamus Ó Grianna 662 The novel in Irish: quantity and quality 662 Subversions of convention and theory 663 Drama: the lack of stage performances 664 Lack of roots in Irish for the realist novel 665 Poetry: Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill 665 Seán Ó Ríordáín and Máirtín Ó Direáin 666 Dissolution of boundaries; the vitality of twentieth-century poetry 667 Pádraig Mac Fhearghusa and the dánta grá tradition 668 Women poets: Biddy Jenkinson's 'Eanair 1991' 669 Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill's 'Cailleach' 669 Non-fictional literature 670 The demands of communication and the market place 671 Irish literature as an alternative voice and vision 671 XX: THE VISUAL ARTS AND SOCIETY, 1921–84 672 Looking inward and looking outward 672 Government and the arts: design; the Irish Cultural Relations Committee, 1949 673 The Bodkin report, 1949: the arts council, 1951; Aosdána, 1981 673 An Taisce, 1948; the Dublin Civic Group, 1966 674 The reorganised arts council in the 1970s 674 Design: An Córas Trachtala; the National College of Art 675 Voluntary organisations 675 Art education 676 Public interest in art: the National Gallery of Ireland, Dublin 677 The Hugh Lane collection and the Municipal Gallery of Modern Art 678 Northern Ireland: the Belfast Museum and Art Gallery 679 The development of an arts council, 1943–62 680 Art education 681 Architecture: the 'International style' in Ireland 681 The refurbishment of Dublin 682 New public buildings in Belfast 684 Georgian style in the Free State 684 Housing programmes: Dutch influence 684 Transport terminals; hospitals; factories 685 Banks; cinemas; cultural centres 686 Schools and universities 687 Churches and cathedrals 688 Painting: Jack B. Yeats, John Lavery, William Orpen 689 Mary Swanzy; Paul and Grace Henry; WJ. Leech; William Conor 689 James Sleator, Seán Keating, Leo Whelan, Charles Lamb, Patrick Tuohy, Maurice McGonigal 690 The White Stag group; the Irish Exhibition of Living Art 691 The Ulster Academy and An tOireachtas 692 May Guinness, Evie Hone, Mainie Jellett, Norah McGuinness 692 The generation maturing in the 1940s 693 The generation of the 1950s and 1960s 694 Patrick Swift, Edward Maguire, and Patrick Hickey 695 The Graphic Studio; Rose 696 The generation born 1936–45 696 Younger artists; a broadened consciousness 698 Sculpture: Oliver Sheppard, Albert Power, Jerome Connor 698 Andrew O' Connor, Joseph Higgins 699 F. E. Mc William, Séamus Murphy 699 Oisín Kelly, Hilary Heron, Laurence Campbell, Friedrich Herkne __A New History of Ireland__Volume VII covers a period of major significance in Ireland's history. It outlines the division of Ireland and the eventual establishment of the Irish Republic. It provides comprehensive coverage of political developments, north and south, as well as offering chapters on the economy, literature in English and Irish, the Irish language, the visual arts, emigration and immigration, and the history of women. The contributors to this volume, all specialists in their field, provide the most comprehensive treatment of these developments of any single-volume survey of twentieth-century Ireland