A History of the Muslim World to 1405 : The Making of a Civilization

Muslims first appeared in the early seventh century as members of a persecuted religious movement in a sun-baked town in Arabia. Within a century, their descendants were ruling a vast territory that extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indus River valley in modern Pakistan. This region became the arena for a new cultural experiment in which Muslim scholars and creative artists synthesized and reworked the legacy of Rome, Greece, Iran, and India into a new civilization. A History of the Muslim World to 1405 traces the development of this civilization from the career of the Prophet Muhammad to the death of the Mongol emperor Timur Lang. Coverage includes the unification of the Dar a1-Islam (the territory ruled by Muslims), the fragmentation into various religious and political groups including the Shi'ite and Sunni, and the series of catastrophes in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that threatened to destroy the civilization. Features: Balanced coverage of the Muslim world encompassing the region from the Iberian Peninsula to South Asia. Detailed accounts of all cultures including major Shi'ite groups and the Sunni community. Primary sources. Numerous maps and photographs featuring a special four-color art insert. Glossary, charts, and timelines. Cover 2 Title Page 3 Copyright Page 4 Table of Contents 5 Preface 15 Acknowledgements 18 Note on Transliteration and Dating 19 Part One The Formative Period, 610–950 21 1. Origins 25 Southwestern Asia in the Seventh Century 26 The Byzantine Empire 26 The Sasanian Empire 33 The Arabian Peninsula 39 The Rise of Islam 46 The Meccan Environment 46 Muhammad 48 A Framework for a New Community 55 Conclusion 59 Notes 61 Further Reading 62 2. Arab Imperialism 64 Arab Conquests 65 Arabia and the Fertile Crescent 65 Iran 70 North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula 73 Central Asia and the Indus River Valley 76 Umayyad Administration 78 The Caliphate 78 The Administration of Non-Muslims 81 The Administration of Muslims 83 Arab Warriors 83 Non-Arab Converts 84 Regulating Women’s Roles 85 The Rationalization of Society 88 Dissolution of the Arab Empire 91 Conclusion 98 Notes 99 Further Reading 100 3. The Development of Sectarianism 101 ‘Ali and the Politics of Division 102 Political Dissension 102 ‘Ali’s Caliphate: Shi‘ites and Kharijites 104 Karbala 106 The Abbasid Revolution 111 Shi’ite Identities 115 The Ghulat and the Zaydis 116 The Husayni Alids 117 The Centrality of Muhammad al-Baqir and Ja‘far al-Sadiq 117 The Imamis 120 The Isma‘ilis 122 The Shi‘ite Movement 123 The Sunni Consensus 125 Conclusion 129 Further Reading 131 4. The Center Cannot Hold: Three Caliphates 132 The Abbasid Caliphate 134 The Early Period 134 Military and Economic Problems 137 The Assertion of Regional Autonomy 140 The Fatimid Caliphate 144 Isma‘ili Activism 144 A Second Caliphate in the Umma 146 The Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba 151 The Consolidation of Umayyad Power 151 A Third Caliphate in the Umma 155 Economic Networks 158 A Single Economy 158 Overland Trade 160 Maritime Commerce 164 Conclusion 167 Notes 168 Further Reading 169 5. Synthesis and Creativity 171 The Origins of Islamic Law 173 Assimilation and Adaptation 173 Groping Toward an Islamic Jurisprudence 174 The Development of the Shari‘a 176 The Synthesis of al-Shafi‘i 177 Consolidation of the Madhhabs 178 The Impact of the Shari‘a 179 Early Sufism 183 The Contemplative Life 183 Testing the Limits of Transcendence 186 The Accommodation of Sufism 188 The Reception of Science and Philosophy 190 Science (“Natural Philosophy”) 190 Philosophy 192 The Development of an Islamic Theology 197 The Reception of Rationalism 197 The Critique of Rationalism 200 Conclusion 203 Notes 205 Further Reading 206 Part Two A Civilization Under Siege, 950–1260 207 6. Filling the Vacuum of Power, 950–1100 211 The Buyid Sultanate 212 The Advent of the Turks 215 Origins 215 The Saljuq Invasion 219 The Great Saljuqs and the Saljuqs of Rum 222 The Fatimid Empire 227 The Conquest of Egypt and Palestine 227 Religious Policies 228 The New Egyptian Economy 231 Ominous Developments 232 The Nizaris (“Assassins”) 235 The Muslim West 238 Norman Invasions of Muslim Territory 238 The “Hilali Invasion” of Ifriqiya 239 A Berber Empire 241 The Collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate of Andalus 243 The Incorporation of Andalus into the Maghrib 246 Conclusion 248 Further Reading 249 7. Barbarians at the Gates, 1100–1260 251 The Period of the Crusades 252 The First Crusade 252 The Franks on the Defensive 258 The Loss of Andalus 264 Provisional Solutions: The Great Berber Empires 264 The Disintegration of the Almohads and of Andalus 269 Realignment in the East 273 The Collapse of the Great Saljuqs 275 Sunni–Nizari Rapprochement 277 The Mongol Campaigns 279 Conclusion 285 Further Reading 286 8. The Consolidation of Traditions 288 Science and Philosophy 289 Mathematics and the Natural Sciences 289 Philosophy 291 The Sunni Resolution to the Tension between Reason and Revelation 294 Consolidating Institutions: Sufism 296 The Emergence of Lodges and Tariqas 297 Speculative Mysticism 301 Consolidating Institutions: Shi‘ism 308 Twelver Shi‘ites 308 The Isma‘ilis 310 The Impact of “The Foreign Sciences” and Jurisprudence 312 The Transmission of Knowledge 315 Schools 315 The Legacy to Europe 320 English Words Derived from Arabic 322 Conclusion 325 Notes 327 Further Reading 328 9. The Muslim Commonwealth 330 Frontiers and Identities 332 Frontiers Defining the Dar al-Islam 332 Frontiers within the Dar al-Islam 339 Identities 341 The City and the Countryside 346 The City 346 The Countryside 352 Conversion to Islam 355 A Muslim Minority 355 The Pace of Conversion Quickens 357 The Issue of Authority in the Muslim World 360 Conclusion 364 Notes 365 Further Reading 366 Part Three Mongol Hegemony, 1260–1405 368 10. The Great Transformation 371 The Mongol Khan 373 The Qipchaq Khanate 373 The Il-khanate 377 The Chaghatay Khanate 381 New Centers of Islamic Culture 384 The Mamluke Empire 384 The Delhi Sultanate 389 The Ottoman Sultanate 394 Scourges 401 Plague 401 Timur Lang 402 Conclusion 408 Further Reading 410 11. Unity and Diversity in Islamic Traditions 411 Intellectual Life in the Fourteenth Century 413 The End of the “Golden Age”? 413 Against All Odds 416 Ibn Taymiya 416 Ibn al-Shatir 418 Ibn Khaldun 421 Hafez 423 Ibn Battuta 425 Law 428 The Queen of the Sciences 428 The “Closing of the Gate of Ijtihad”? 429 The Varieties of Religious Expression 433 “Orthodoxy” and “Heterodoxy” 433 The Proliferation of Sufi Groups 436 Sufism Triumphant 437 Sufism as Social Critique 441 Sufism, Syncretism, and Shi‘ism 443 Conclusion 447 Further Reading 448 Glossary 449 Index 461 Plates 478 This Book Is An Introduction To The History Of The Muslim World For Readers With Little Or No Knowledge Of The Subject. It Points Out The Unifying Elements That Bind Together The Muslim World, But Stresses The Religious And Political Differences That Prevent Them From Acting As A Unit. This Book Features Economic, Political, Intellectual, And Social Developments Over The Wide Area Of The Muslim World And Across Many Centuries. For Readers Interested In Learning The History Of The Muslim World; Also, For Employees Of Corporations And Businesses That Trade With Regions Ruled By Muslim-dominated Governments. Pt. 1. The Formative Period, 610-950 -- Origins -- Southwestern Asia In The Seventh Century -- The Rise Of Islam -- Arab Imperialism -- Arab Conquest -- Umayyad Administration -- Dissolution Of The Arab Empire -- The Development Of Sectarianism -- ʹali And The Politics Of Division -- The Abbasid Revolution -- Shiʹite Identities -- The Sunni Consensus -- The Center Cannot Hold: Three Caliphates -- The Abbasid Caliphate -- The Fatimid Caliphate -- The Umayyad Caliphate Of Cordoba -- Econmic Networks -- Synthesis And Creativity -- The Origins Of Islamic Law -- Early Sufism -- The Reception Of Science And Philosophy -- The Development Of An Islamic Theology -- Pt. 2. A Civilization Under Siege, 950-1260 -- Filling The Vacuum Of Power, 950-1100 -- The Buyid Sultanate -- The Advent Of The Turks -- The Fatimid Empire -- The Nizaris (assassins) -- The Muslim West -- Barbarians At The Gates, 1100-1260 -- The Period Of The Crusades -- The Loss Of Andalus -- Realignment In The East -- The Consolidation Of Traditions -- Science And Philosophy -- Consolidating Institutions: Sufism -- Consolidating Institutions: Shiʹism -- The Transmission Of Knowledge -- English Words Derived From Arabic -- The Muslim Commonwealth -- Frontiers And Identities -- The City And The Countryside -- Conversion To Islam -- The Issue Of Authority In The Muslim World -- Pt. 3. Mongol Hegemony, 1260-1405 -- The Great Transformation -- The Mongol Khanates -- New Centers Of Islamic Culture -- Scourges -- Unity And Diversity In Islamic Traditions -- Intellectual Life In The Fourteenth Century -- Law -- The Varieties Of Religious Expression. Vernon O. Egger. Includes Bibliographical References And Index. Points out the unifying elements that bind together the Muslim world, and stresses the religious and political differences that inhibit unity. This text is appropriate for undergraduate courses in Muslim history, Islamic Civilization, and religious studies courses on Islam. Tradition and adaptation are the central themes of the text.