A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk

The story of the Beothuk is a tragic one. The Aboriginal inhabitants of Newfoundland, they were hunters, gatherers, and fishers who moved seasonally between the coast and the interior. With the influx of European settlements and fisheries in the 1700s, the Beothuk found their territory reduced increasingly and conflict between the two groups escalated. The Beothuk population declined steadily and by the early 1800s the Beothuk had ceased to exist as a viable cultural group. Shanawdithit, the last Beothuk, died in 1829. Following their extinction, the Beothuk came to be viewed as a people whose origins, history, and fate were shrouded in mystery. On a quest to sort fact from fiction, Ingeborg Marshall, a leading expert on the Beothuk, has produced this review of the history and culture of the Beothuk that incorporates archival material with up-to-date archaeological data. Part I documents the history of the Beothuk from the first European encounter in the 1500s to their demise. The author focuses on relations between the Beothuk and the English through the centuries and the reasons for change in Beothuk distribution and population size. The work considers the increasing competition between Beothuk and English for resources on the coast, the ways in which English trappers interfered with Beothuk hunting activities, and the hostilities that resulted. It also examines the conciliatory attempts of private citizens and naval officers, the taking of Beothuk captives, and factors such as disease and starvation that contributed to the decline of the population. Relations with Inuit, Montagnais, and Micmac are also discussed. Part II is a comprehensive review of Beothuk culture. Contents......Page 6 Tables, Maps, Graphs, and Sketches......Page 12 Plates......Page 15 Acknowledgments......Page 18 Introduction......Page 28 PART ONE: HISTORY......Page 36 Introduction: Before Contact......Page 38 The Cabots and Côrte Real......Page 39 Other Early Sixteenth-Century Sources......Page 41 Jacques Cartier at Blanc Sablon......Page 43 Accounts by Hoare, Crignon, and Alphonse......Page 44 Descriptions by Jehan Mallart and André Thevet......Page 45 Meetings and Trade between Sixteenth-Century Fishing Crews and Newfoundland Indians......Page 46 Sir Humphrey Gilbert's Expedition and an Eyewitness Account from 1594......Page 48 English Plans to Colonize......Page 50 John Guy Meets with Beothuk......Page 53 Henry Crout Returns to Trinity Bay......Page 57 Colonies Founded by Other English Promoters......Page 60 Failure to Convert the Beothuk......Page 61 Interaction with Seasonal Fishing Crews......Page 62 Beothuk Contact with the Dutch and French......Page 64 Micmac Hunting and Trapping......Page 67 The Beothuk in Micmac Tradition......Page 70 Micmac in Beothuk Tradition......Page 72 The Effect of Micmac Hostilities on the Beothuk......Page 74 Conflict between Inuit and Fishing Crews......Page 76 Beothuk/Inuit Conflict......Page 79 Beothuk/Montagnais Relations......Page 80 Information on Montagnais from Shanawdithit......Page 84 Redistribution of Beothuk in the Early 1700s......Page 86 The Growth of the English Salmon Fishery......Page 87 The Beothuk's Exclusion from Salmon Rivers......Page 89 Sea Travel to Bird Colonies Becomes Hazardous......Page 92 The English Fur Business......Page 94 Beothuk and Furriers Clash......Page 96 Intermittent Small Trade with Beothuk......Page 97 Factors That Prevented a Regular Fur Trade......Page 98 The Growth of the English Fur Business......Page 100 The Effect of English Sealing on the Beothuk......Page 103 Preparation and Exploration......Page 109 Information on the Beothuk......Page 112 A Proclamation Is Issued......Page 117 Records of Hostile Acts by Beothuk......Page 120 Traditions Recorded by J.P. Howley......Page 123 Hostile Acts by the English......Page 125 Failure to Control Persisting Persecution......Page 133 Why the Beothuk Continued to Take and Damage Equipment......Page 136 George Cartwright's Plan for an Indian Reserve......Page 138 A Proposal by George Christopher Pulling, RN......Page 140 Chief Justice John Reeves's Endeavour......Page 142 Governor Waldegrave's Attempts at Improving Relations with Beothuk......Page 144 Seeking Friendly Relations through Exchanges......Page 147 The Capture of Beothuk......Page 148 Captives as Conciliators......Page 152 William Cull Captures a Beothuk Woman......Page 154 Luring the Beothuk with a Painting......Page 157 Instructions to Convert Beothuk......Page 158 Records of White People Captured by Beothuk......Page 159 The Distribution of Beothuk in the Early 1800s......Page 162 Preparations for a Mission to the Beothuk......Page 163 Buchan's Expeditions......Page 164 Shanawdithit's Version of the Events......Page 168 Buchan's Concluding Remarks and Map of the Country......Page 169 Buchan's Subsequent Searches......Page 174 Meetings with Beothuk Remain Unattainable......Page 176 Micmac Encroachment into Beothuk Territory......Page 179 Records of Kidnapping and Intermarriage......Page 182 Beothuk Response to Micmac Encroachment......Page 183 Micmac Views on the Demise of the Beothuk......Page 184 Beothuk Transgressions Precipitate a Confrontation......Page 185 The Taking of Demasduit......Page 187 Demasduit......Page 193 Captain Buchan's Final Attempt to Meet Beothuk......Page 198 The Search for Beothuk Is Suspended......Page 205 William E. Cormack Searches for Beothuk......Page 206 The Killing of Two Beothuk......Page 208 The Capture of Shanawdithit, Her Mother, and Her Sister......Page 210 The Founding of the Boeothick Institution......Page 217 Cormack and the Boeothick Institution Conduct Searches......Page 220 A Protégé of the Boeothick Institution......Page 226 Shanawdithit in St John's......Page 228 Shanawdithit's Story of Her People......Page 230 Shanawdithit's Sketches......Page 235 Information on Beothuk Culture......Page 239 Cormack's View of the Beothuk......Page 241 Shanawdithit's Death......Page 242 Sightings in Newfoundland and Labrador......Page 249 Newfoundlanders and Britons Begin to Acknowledge Responsibility......Page 251 1 Transcript of Letter from Henry Crout to Sir Percival Willoughby, August 1613......Page 260 2 Biographies of Major Informants......Page 263 PART TWO: ETHNOGRAPHY......Page 272 Introduction......Page 274 Chronology of Major Events......Page 275 Maritime Archaic Indians......Page 279 Early and Late Palaeo-Eskimo......Page 280 Recent Indians......Page 282 Little Passage Indians......Page 284 The Norse......Page 286 The Beothuk......Page 288 Introduction......Page 297 Geographical Distribution......Page 298 Approximate Size of the Beothuk Population......Page 303 Tribal Structure and Cooperation among Bands......Page 310 Ceremonies and Celebrations......Page 312 Band Leadership......Page 314 Differences in Social Status......Page 316 Presence of Shamans......Page 317 Food Consumption......Page 319 Subsistence Economies......Page 328 Tools......Page 336 Utensils......Page 344 Hunting Techniques......Page 352 Personal Appearance......Page 361 The Manufacture of Clothing......Page 364 Conical Mamateeks......Page 375 Six-Sided (Hexagonal) Mamateeks......Page 378 Square and Rectangular Mamateeks......Page 380 Eight-Sided (Octagonal) Mamateeks......Page 381 Unspecified House Types......Page 383 Changes in the Use of Conical Mamateeks and Developments in Beothuk House Building......Page 386 Vapour Baths, Storage Facilities, and Other Structures......Page 387 Birchbark Canoes......Page 389 Other Means of Transportation......Page 399 The Spirit World......Page 402 Rituals and Taboos......Page 404 Personal Guardian Spirits......Page 407 Origin Myth and Belief in an Afterlife......Page 408 Application of Red Ochre......Page 409 Mythological Emblems......Page 410 Carved Bone Pieces......Page 412 Games......Page 416 Different Types of Beads......Page 420 A Burial Hut and the Burial of a Child......Page 423 Types of Burials......Page 430 Grave Furnishings......Page 434 Weapons and Shields......Page 446 Fighting Methods with Other Native Groups......Page 447 Strategies in Conflicts with Europeans......Page 448 Signals of Peace......Page 450 Head Trophies......Page 451 27 The Beothuk Language......Page 453 The Oubee Wordlist......Page 454 A Vocabulary Obtained from Demasduit......Page 455 Words and Phrases Supplied by Shanawdithit......Page 456 The Term Beothuk......Page 459 Is Beothuk an Algonquian Language?......Page 460 28 Concluding Discussion......Page 463 1A: Authenticated Beothuk Burials......Page 437 1B: Recorded Burials Whose Beothuk Origin Has Not Been Authenticated......Page 439 3 Beothuk Namefile......Page 472 4 Beothuk Artifact Collections......Page 476 5 Institutions Contacted in Search of Beothuk Artifacts and Documentary Source Material......Page 478 Notes......Page 482 Bibliography......Page 606 B......Page 646 C......Page 650 D......Page 652 F......Page 653 G......Page 654 H......Page 655 J......Page 656 M......Page 657 P......Page 660 R......Page 661 S......Page 662 U......Page 664 Y......Page 665 Although Lengthy, This Highly Readable History Of The Beothuk Will Add Much To What Has Been Meager Information About The Tribe Which Was Decimated By Early Newfoundland Settlers In The 1800s. This History Covers The Period Between Their First Incounter With Europeans To Their Eventural Death. Since They Have Not Existed For 160 Years, Had No Written Language, And Left Little Impression On History, Marshall Had A Difficult Task, But She Has Fulfilled It Admirably. Pt. 1. History. 1. The Sixteenth Century: First Contact. 2. The Seventeenth Century: Colonization, Trade, And Encroachment. 3. Relations Between The Beothuk And Their Native Neighbours. 4. Competition For Resources On The Coast. 5. Hostilities Over Hunting And Trapping. 6. Lieutenant John Cartwright Explores Beothuk Country. 7. Intensified Conflict Between Beothuk And Settlers. 8. Plans To Conciliate The Beothuk. 9. The Capture Of Beothuk To Make Peace. 10. Lieutenant Buchan's Efforts To Make Contact. 11. Micmac And Montagnais Versus Beothuk: The Final Phase. 12. The Captive Demasduit. 13. 1822-27: The Boeothick Institution. 14. Shanawdithit. 15. Epilogue -- App. 1. Transcript Of Letter From Henry Crout To Sir Percival Willoughby, August 1613 -- App. 2. Biographies Of Major Informants -- Pt. 2. Ethnography. 16. Position Of Beothuk In Newfoundland Prehistory. 17. Distribution And Size Of The Beothuk Population. 18. Aspects Of Social Organization. 19. Food Consumption And Subsistence Economies. 20. Tools And Utensils, Hunting And Fishing Techniques Tools/utensils/hunting Techniques. 21. Appearance And Clothing. 22. Mamateeks And Other Structures. 23. Birchbark Canoes And Other Means Of Transportation. 24. Beothuk World View And Belief-related Practices. 25. Burial Places And Mortuary Practices. 26. Fighting Methods And Peace Tokens. 27. The Beothuk Language. 28. Concluding Discussion -- App. 3. Beothuk Namefile -- App. 4. Beothuk Artifact Collections -- App. 5. Institutions Contacted In Search Of Beothuk Artifacts And Documentary Source Material. Ingeborg Marshall. Includes Bibliographical References (p. [581]-619) And Index. In Part I, Ingeborg Marshall documents the history of the Beothuk from the first European encounter in the 1500s to their demise, focusing on relations between Beothuk and English through the centuries and the reasons for change in Beothuk distribution and population size. She provides a highly readable and lucid account of the increasing competition between Beothuk and English for resources on the coast, the ways in which English trappers interfered with Beothuk hunting activities, and the hostilities that resulted. She examines the conciliatory attempts of private citizens and naval officers, the taking of Beothuk captives, and factors such as disease and starvation that contributed to the decline of the population. Relations with Inuit, Montagnais, and Micmac are also discussed. Part II is a comprehensive review of Beothuk culture. Each chapter focuses on an ethnographic theme, such as size and distribution of the Beothuk population, aspects of social organization, food consumption and subsistence economies, tools and utensils, hunting and fishing techniques, appearance and clothing, dwellings, canoes and other means of transportation, burial practices, and fighting methods, as well as the Beothuk world view and language. Following their extinction, the Beothuk came to be viewed as a people whose origins, history, and fate were shrouded in mystery. On a quest to sort fact from fiction, Ingeborg Marshall, a leading expert on the Beothuk, has produced an elegant, comprehensive, and scholarly review of the history and culture of the Beothuk that incorporates an unmatched amount of new archival material with up-to-date archaeological data. The book is beautifully and extensively illustrated with maps, portraits, photographs of Beothuk artifacts, burial sites, and camps, and a set of drawings by Shanawdithit. A History and Ethnography of the Beothuk is a compelling story and an indispensable reference tool for anyone interested in the Beothuk or Native peoples of North America.