A Grammar of Murui (Bue, Witoto): A Witotoan language of Northwest Amazonia

This is the first detailed description of Murui (Bue variety), a Witotoan language spoken by about 2,000 people in the Colombian and Peruvian parts of the Amazon Basin. Following Basic Linguistic Theory, the reference grammar presents analyses of the phonology, morphology and syntax of the Murui language. Collected during several fieldtrips to the Murui communities located between the Putumayo and Caquetá rivers in Colombia, the linguistic data consists mainly of an extensive corpus of texts. In addition to the language description and analysis, the grammar also draws attention to the typological features of Murui and sheds new light on the linguistic variation among the Witotoan languages. It is a valuable resource for further research on the linguistic affiliation of the Witotoan language family in South America. Disclaimer ............................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ................................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables, Maps, Figures, Diagrams, and Schemes .................................................... xix Abbreviations and Conventions........................................................................................... xxi Orthographic conventions .................................................................................................. xxiv The Murui language and its speakers ............................................................................ 1 Linguistic profile of Murui ........................................................................................ 3 The People of the Center cultural area .................................................................... 11 Who are the ‘Murui’ people, and why are they referred to as ‘Witoto’ .................. 23 1.3.1 Denomination ..................................................................................................... 24 1.3.2 Historical background ........................................................................................ 26 1.3.3 Social organization ............................................................................................. 30 1.3.4 Marriage customs and kinship terminology ....................................................... 34 1.3.5 Beliefs, rituals, and customs .............................................................................. 42 1.3.6 Calendar ............................................................................................................. 46 1.3.7 Taboo ................................................................................................................. 50 1.3.8 Avoidance speech style ...................................................................................... 53 1.3.9 Songs .................................................................................................................. 54 1.3.10 Murui drum communication .............................................................................. 56 1.3.11 Naming ............................................................................................................... 57 Linguistic affiliation ................................................................................................. 58 Sociolinguistic situation ........................................................................................... 61 Previous studies ....................................................................................................... 65 Basis for this study ................................................................................................... 67 1.7.1 Materials and speakers ....................................................................................... 68 1.7.2 Locations ............................................................................................................ 69 Phonology ....................................................................................................................... 73 Segmental phonology ............................................................................................... 74 2.1.1 Consonants ......................................................................................................... 74 2.1.2 Vowels ............................................................................................................... 84 2.1.3 Vowel sequences and diphthongs ...................................................................... 90 2.1.3.1 Vowel sequences ........................................................................................ 90 2.1.3.2 Diphthongs and underlying vowel sequences ............................................ 91 2.1.3.3 More on vowel sequences........................................................................... 93 xiv Syllable structure and stress ..................................................................................... 93 Phonological word and phonological phrase ........................................................... 95 Intonation and pitch ................................................................................................. 96 General phonological processes ............................................................................... 99 2.5.1 Involving vowels .............................................................................................. 100 2.5.2 Involving consonants ....................................................................................... 106 Borrowings and adaptation of loanwords .............................................................. 109 2.6.1 Spanish loanwords and their adaptation .......................................................... 109 2.6.2 Cognate forms shared with neighboring languages ......................................... 111 Unusual sounds ...................................................................................................... 113 2.7.1 Onomatopoeic expressions .............................................................................. 113 2.7.2 Animal sounds ................................................................................................. 114 2.7.3 Interjections...................................................................................................... 115 Orthography ........................................................................................................... 115 Nonverbal communication and deictic gestures .................................................... 116 Word classes ................................................................................................................. 118 Open word classes .................................................................................................. 118 3.1.1 Nouns ............................................................................................................... 119 3.1.2 Verbs ................................................................................................................ 128 3.1.3 Adjectives ........................................................................................................ 131 3.1.4 Word-class-changing and non-word-class-changing derivations .................... 133 Semi-closed word classes ...................................................................................... 140 3.2.1 Adverbs ............................................................................................................ 140 3.2.2 Time words ...................................................................................................... 146 3.2.3 Number words .................................................................................................. 147 Closed word classes ............................................................................................... 153 3.3.1 Quantifiers and intensifiers .............................................................................. 154 3.3.2 Pronouns .......................................................................................................... 156 3.3.3 Demonstratives ................................................................................................ 160 3.3.4 Interrogative content words ............................................................................. 169 3.3.5 Connective ....................................................................................................... 176 3.3.6 Adpositions ...................................................................................................... 177 3.3.7 Interjections...................................................................................................... 179 Summary ................................................................................................................ 179 Noun structure and classifiers .................................................................................... 182 Noun structure ........................................................................................................ 182 Multiple classifier system ...................................................................................... 185 4.2.1 General overview ............................................................................................. 185 4.2.2 Classifiers ......................................................................................................... 191 4.2.2.1 Physical property classifiers ..................................................................... 192 4.2.2.2 Animate classifiers ................................................................................... 205 4.2.2.3 Animate classifiers and number ............................................................... 213 4.2.2.4 Abstract classifiers .................................................................................... 216 4.2.2.5 Neutral classifier ....................................................................................... 217 4.2.2.6 Repeaters .................................................................................................. 218 4.2.2.7 Repeaters and specific classifiers ............................................................. 223 xv Classifier-like markers ........................................................................................... 225 4.3.1 Quantification marker ...................................................................................... 225 4.3.2 Location markers ............................................................................................. 226 Classifier stacking .................................................................................................. 230 Functions of classifiers and repeaters .................................................................... 231 4.5.1 Functions of classifiers .................................................................................... 231 4.5.2 Functions of repeaters ...................................................................................... 235 Summary ................................................................................................................ 237 5 Possession and number ................................................................................................ 240 5.1 Possession ‒ general characteristics ....................................................................... 240 5.1.1 Marking in possessive constructions ............................................................... 242 5.1.1.1 Apposition within an NP .......................................................................... 242 5.1.1.2 Genitive marking on pronouns ................................................................. 245 5.1.1.3 Pronouns and classifiers ........................................................................... 250 5.1.2 Relationship and meaning of possessive noun phrases .................................... 251 5.1.3 Predicative possessive constructions ............................................................... 254 5.1.3.1 Attributive markers on predicates............................................................. 254 5.1.3.2 Using intransitive verb ‘exist’ .................................................................. 257 5.1.3.3 Verbless clauses ........................................................................................ 258 5.1.4 On ‘possessibility’ of Murui nouns.................................................................. 261 5.2 Number .................................................................................................................. 264 5.2.1 Marking ............................................................................................................ 264 5.2.2 Number of ‘headless’ nominal modifiers and partial agreement ..................... 271 Grammatical relations ................................................................................................. 273 6.1 Grammatical relations ‒ general characteristics .................................................... 273 6.2 Arguments and case: semantics, marking, and function ........................................ 275 6.2.1 Core arguments ................................................................................................ 276 6.2.1.1 S and A core arguments ............................................................................ 277 6.2.1.2 Differential S/A case marking .................................................................. 279 6.2.1.3 O core arguments ...................................................................................... 285 6.2.1.4 Other functions of -na ............................................................................... 288 6.2.1.5 Differential object marking ...................................................................... 291 6.2.1.6 Marking of O NP, with dative/locative .................................................... 299 6.2.1.7 ‘Oblique’ as core argument ...................................................................... 301 6.2.1.8 Double case marking ................................................................................ 302 6.2.2 Oblique arguments ........................................................................................... 303 6.2.2.1 Locative .................................................................................................... 304 6.2.2.2 Ablative .................................................................................................... 308 6.2.2.3 Instrumental .............................................................................................. 310 6.2.2.4 Benefactive-causal .................................................................................... 313 6.2.2.5 Privative .................................................................................................... 315 6.3 Order of arguments ................................................................................................ 316 6.4 Summary ................................................................................................................ 319 7 Predicate structure, non-spatial, and spatial setting ................................................ 321 xvi 7.1 Predicate structure .................................................................................................. 321 7.2 Non-spatial setting ‒ general remarks .................................................................... 324 7.2.1 Tense ................................................................................................................ 328 7.2.1.1 Non-future ................................................................................................ 330 7.2.1.2 Future ........................................................................................................ 332 7.2.1.3 Use of lexical time words ......................................................................... 334 7.2.2 Aspect .............................................................................................................. 335 7.2.2.1 Phase of activity........................................................................................ 335 7.2.2.2 Temporal extent ........................................................................................ 338 7.2.2.3 Degree ....................................................................................................... 341 7.2.2.4 Frequency ................................................................................................. 343 7.2.2.5 Manner ...................................................................................................... 350 7.2.2.6 Miscellaneous affixes ............................................................................... 353 7.2.3 Modality ........................................................................................................... 355 7.2.3.1 Attitudinal modalities ............................................................................... 355 7.2.3.2 Ability ....................................................................................................... 358 7.2.3.3 Obligation ................................................................................................. 359 7.2.3.4 Epistemic modality ................................................................................... 359 7.2.3.5 Extensions of epistemic modalities .......................................................... 363 7.2.4 Evidentiality ..................................................................................................... 365 7.2.4.1 Reported evidential ................................................................................... 365 7.2.4.2 Epistemic modality vs. evidentiality ........................................................ 370 7.3 Spatial setting ......................................................................................................... 371 7.4 Summary ................................................................................................................ 374 8 Valency-changing mechanisms ................................................................................... 377 8.1 Valency reducing devices ‒ the passive ................................................................. 377 8.1.1 Non-future passive ........................................................................................... 378 8.1.2 Future passive .................................................................................................. 384 8.2 Valency increasing devices ‒ the causative ........................................................... 386 8.2.1 Causative .......................................................................................................... 386 8.2.2 Double causative .............................................................................................. 393 8.3 Reflexive and reciprocal ........................................................................................ 396 8.3.1 Reflexive .......................................................................................................... 397 8.3.2 Reciprocal ........................................................................................................ 401 8.3.3 Reflexive and reciprocal constructions ‒ a summary ...................................... 403 8.4 Summary ................................................................................................................ 404 9 Adjectives and comparative constructions ................................................................ 405 9.1 Adjectives ‒ general remarks ................................................................................. 405 9.1.1 Adjective types and their semantic content ..................................................... 406 9.1.2 Criteria for recognition .................................................................................... 411 9.2 Comparative constructions ‒ general remarks ....................................................... 417 9.2.1 Comparatives with the classifier ‘side’ followed by locative ......................... 421 9.2.2 Comparatives with ‘back’ followed by locative .............................................. 425 9.2.3 Comparatives with the locative ........................................................................ 426 9.2.4 Superlative strategies ....................................................................................... 427 9.2.5 Comparison of equality .................................................................................... 429 xvii 9.2.6 Similative and meanings of equal size ............................................................. 430 9.3 Summary ................................................................................................................ 432 10 Negation ........................................................................................................................ 434 10.1 Negation ‒ general characteristics ......................................................................... 434 10.2 Clausal negation ..................................................................................................... 438 10.2.1 Negation of declaratives .................................................................................. 439 10.2.1.1 Standard negative ..................................................................................... 439 10.2.1.2 Negative attribution .................................................................................. 442 10.2.1.3 Subordinate clauses .................................................................................. 446 10.2.2 Negation of interrogatives................................................................................ 447 10.2.3 Negative imperatives ....................................................................................... 451 10.2.4 Negation of verbless clauses ............................................................................ 454 10.2.5 Clausal negation with the privative case marker ............................................. 456 10.3 Non-clausal negation ............................................................................................. 457 10.3.1 Negative answers ............................................................................................. 458 10.3.2 Negative words ................................................................................................ 461 10.4 Summary ................................................................................................................ 462 11 Commands and questions ........................................................................................... 463 11.1 Commands ‒ general characteristics ...................................................................... 463 11.1.1 Murui canonical imperatives............................................................................ 464 11.1.2 Murui non-canonical imperatives .................................................................... 469 11.1.3 Responses to commands and commands at a distance .................................... 473 11.1.4 Command strategies ......................................................................................... 474 11.2 Questions ‒ general characteristics ........................................................................ 478 11.2.1 Content questions ............................................................................................. 479 11.2.2 Polar questions ................................................................................................. 480 11.2.3 Tag questions ................................................................................................... 481 11.2.4 Alternative questions ....................................................................................... 483 11.2.5 Exclamative questions and sentences .............................................................. 484 11.2.6 Answers to questions ....................................................................................... 484 11.2.7 Greetings .......................................................................................................... 485 11.3 Summary ................................................................................................................ 487 12 Sentence types and clause linking ............................................................................... 488 12.1 Types of independent clauses ................................................................................ 488 12.1.1 Declarative ....................................................................................................... 489 12.1.2 Interrogative ..................................................................................................... 495 12.1.3 Imperative ........................................................................................................ 495 12.2 Independent clauses and clause linking ................................................................. 496 12.3 Dependent clauses .................................................................................................. 498 12.3.1 Subordinate clauses and clause linking ............................................................ 498 12.3.2 Complementation strategy ............................................................................... 516 12.3.3 Relativization strategy ..................................................................................... 517 12.4 Summary ................................................................................................................ 519 xviii 13 Discourse organization ................................................................................................ 520 13.1 Repetition of phrases and clauses .......................................................................... 520 13.2 Bridging constructions ........................................................................................... 522 13.2.1 Recapitulative linkage ...................................................................................... 524 13.2.2 Summary linkage ............................................................................................. 528 13.2.3 The ‘bridging’-like connective ........................................................................ 529 13.3 Genre specific features ........................................................................................... 533 13.3.1 Narratives ......................................................................................................... 533 13.3.2 Conversations ................................................................................................... 536 13.3.3 Songs ................................................................................................................ 539 13.4 Focus and pause markers ....................................................................................... 541 13.5 Contact-induced language change: Spanish influence on Murui ........................... 551 13.5.1 Language contact and change - grammar ........................................................ 553 13.5.2 Loanwords and calques from Spanish ............................................................. 554 13.5.3 Discourse functions of code switching and code mixing ................................. 557 13.5.4 ‘Impoverished’ and ‘ungrammatical’ language ............................................... 561 13.6 Summary ................................................................................................................ 562 References ............................................................................................................................. 563 Appendix ............................................................................................................................... 577 Text 1: Jiyakɨno ‒ The Murui Origin Myth (Tercera India, 2016) .................................... 578 Text 2: Rɨño ñaɨakɨno ‒ A Women’s Conversation (Tercera India, 2013) ........................ 591 Text 3: Dajena kaɨ ɨnɨye ‒ To live united (Tercera India, 2015) ........................................ 602 Text 4: Momo jɨkakaza ‒ An appeal to the Father Creator (Tercera India, 2013) ............. 610 Text 5: Kaɨ iyɨkɨnuaɨ ‒ Our life stories (Tercera India, 2016) ........................................... 616 xix List of Tables, Maps, Figures, Diagrams, and Schemes Tables Table 1.1 Ethnic population and speakers of the People of the Center ................................... 23 Table 2.1 Murui consonants ..........................................................................