A grammar and dictionary of Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ (Cayuga)

This work describes the grammar of Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀ (Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀnéha:ˀ, Cayuga), an Ǫgwehǫ́weh (Iroquoian) language spoken at Six Nations, Ontario, Canada. Topics include Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀnéha:ˀ morphology (word formation); pronominal prefix selection, meaning, and pronunciation; syntax (fixed word order); and discourse (the effects of free word order and noun incorporation, and the use of particles). Gayogo̱hó:nǫˀnéha:ˀ morphophonology and sentence-level phonology are also described where relevant in the grammar. Finally, the work includes noun, verb, and particle dictionaries, organized according to the categories outlined in the grammatical description, as well as lists of cultural terms and phrases. Contents Foreword Preface Acknowledgements Funding acknowledgements Abbreviations I Introduction 1 The Hodinǫ̱hsǫ́:nih 1.1 Gaihwí:yo: and related matters 1.2 Land 1.3 Gayogohonǫˀnéha:ˀ, the Cayuga language 2 Spelling systems 2.1 A modified Henry orthography 2.2 Spelling particles 2.3 Brackets 3 Sounds and spelling 3.1 Vowels and consonants 3.2 Vowel pronunciation 3.2.1 Long versus short vowels 3.3 Consonant pronunciation 3.4 Alphabetization 3.5 Accent and related pronunciation changes 3.5.1 Counting syllables (or vowels) 3.6 Non-final accent and lengthening 3.6.1 Accenting and lengthening even-numbered penults 3.6.2 Accenting and lengthening odd-numbered penults 3.7 Accent shift 3.8 Exceptions to non-final accent placement rules 3.8.1 Accenting short words 3.9 Pronunciation changes related to the syllable count 3.9.1 Exceptions to pronunciation changes related to the syllable count 3.10 Pronunciation changes in sentences 3.10.1 Non-final and final accent in neutral sentences 3.10.2 Accent in non-neutral sentences 3.10.3 Accenting particles and particle groups in sentences 3.10.4 Accent and Euphonic H in sentences II Word classification 4 Defining nouns, verbs, and particles 4.1 Word class versus speech function 5 “Nouns” (words functioning as nouns) 5.1 Basic nouns 5.1.1 Basic nouns with nominalizer (nmlz) suffix 5.2 Body part nouns 5.2.1 ‘Detached’ or unpossessed body part nouns 5.3 Compound nouns 5.4 Verbs that function as nouns 5.4.1 “Instrumental nouns” 5.4.2 Words for human beings 5.4.3 “Meaningful” verbal nouns 5.5 Stative nouns and agentive stative nouns 5.6 Incorporated noun stems 5.7 Atypical nouns 5.8 Kinship terms (atypical words) 5.8.1 Terms of address 5.9 Loanwords (borrowed words) 6 “Pronouns” (words and affixes functioning as pronouns) 6.1 Emphatic “pronouns” 6.2 Possessive “pronouns” 6.3 Demonstrative “pronouns” 6.4 Definite “pronouns” 6.5 Indefinite “pronouns” 6.6 Interrogative “pronouns” 6.7 Negative “pronouns” 6.8 Reflexive and reciprocal “pronouns” 6.9 Personal “pronouns” (pronominal prefixes) 6.9.1 Relative “pronouns” 7 “Adjectives” (words functioning as adjectives) 8 “Adverbs” (words and affixes functioning as adverbs) 8.1 “Adverb” order in phrases 8.2 “Adverbs” of time 8.2.1 “Adverbs” of time (particles) 8.2.2 Prefixes and suffixes functioning as “adverbs” of time 8.2.3 Verbs functioning as “adverbs” of time 8.3 “Adverbs” of place 8.3.1 “Adverbs” of place (particles) 8.3.2 Prefixes that function as “adverbs” of place 8.4 “Adverbs” of manner 8.4.1 Prefixes and suffixes that function as “adverbs” of manner 8.4.2 Verbs functioning as “adverbs” of manner 8.5 “Adverbs” of degree 8.5.1 Particles functioning as “adverbs” of degree 8.5.2 Suffixes functioning as “adverbs” of degree 8.5.3 Verbs functioning as “adverbs” of degree 8.6 Negative “adverbs” 9 Verbs 9.1 Verbs and noun incorporation 9.1.1 Verbs that optionally have an incorporated noun 9.1.2 Verbs that cannot have an incorporated noun 9.1.3 Verbs requiring an incorporated noun 9.2 Transparent vs fixed expressions 9.2.1 Types of fixed expression 9.3 Verbs and aspect 9.3.1 Verbs occurring only in one aspect (stative or habitual) 9.3.2 Three-aspect verbs (habitual, punctual, stative) 9.3.3 No-aspect verbs 9.3.4 E-verbs 9.4 Verb classes and pronominal prefix type 9.5 Verb classes (subdivided by aspect, pronominal prefix type) III Word creation 10 Word suffixes 10.1 -ˀgeh on (external locative) 10.2 -hneh at (external locative) 10.3 -ˀgeh on versus -hneh at 10.4 -:ˀah diminutive (dim) 10.5 -:hah diminutive (dim) 10.6 -go:wah augmentative (aug) 10.7 -gęhę:ˀ past 10.8 -neha:ˀ customary or characterizer 10.9 -geha:ˀ customary 10.10 -ka:ˀ customary 10.11 -ǫ:weh typicalizer (typ) 10.12 -ho:nǫˀ populative (pop) 10.13 -jih intensifier (ints) 10.14 -shę:ˀ, -tsę:ˀ kinship declaration 10.15 Pluralizers (plrz) 10.15.1 -shǫ:ˀǫh pluralizer (plrz) 10.15.2 -shǫˀ pluralizer (plrz) 10.15.3 Meaning of -shǫˀ plrz versus -shǫ:ˀǫh plrz 10.15.4 Pluralizing nouns 11 Noun suffixes 11.1 Noun identifier suffixes 11.1.1 -aˀ noun stem former (nsf) 11.1.2 Noun increments (incr) 11.1.3 -tr-aˀ and -(h)sr-aˀ nominalizer-noun stem former (nmlz-nsf) 11.1.4 -ǫ-:-ˀ stative-nominalizer-noun stem former (stat-nmlz-nsf) 11.1.5 -hkw-haˀ instrumental (instr-hab combination) 11.2 Locative noun suffixes 11.2.1 -gǫ: in (internal locative) 11.2.2 -:kˀah beside (locative) 11.2.3 -kdagyeˀ alongside (locative) 11.3 Verbs that resemble noun suffixes (“suffix-like” verbs) 12 Verb prepronominal prefixes (and verb affix order) 12.1 Mood and negation prefixes 12.1.1 aˀ- factual (fac) 12.1.2 ę- future (fut) 12.1.3 a:- indefinite (indef) 12.1.4 Negation prefixes 12.2 Adverb-like prepronominal prefixes 12.2.1 tsi- coincident (coin) 12.2.2 ti- contrastive (contr) 12.2.3 ni- partitive (part) 12.2.4 s-, j-, ji- repetitive (rep) 12.2.5 d- cislocative (cis) and heˀ- translocative (transl) 12.2.6 de- dualic (du) 12.3 Pronunciation of prepronominal combinations 12.3.1 Legend for prepronominal prefix pronunciation charts 12.3.2 Pronunciation changes at the end of the prepronominal prefixes 12.3.3 Prepronominals in alphabetical order 13 Verb post-pronominal prefixes 13.1 adad- reflexive (refl) or reciprocal (rec) 13.1.1 Verbs that require adad- refl or rec 13.2 ad- semireflexive (srf) 13.2.1 Verbs requiring ad- srf 13.3 Pronunciation of the post-pronominal prefixes 14 Noun incorporation 14.1 Nouns that can be incorporated 14.1.1 Placeholder incorporated nouns 14.2 Nouns that cannot be incorporated 14.2.1 Nouns that are not incorporable 14.2.2 Excorporation 14.3 Verbs that cannot incorporate nouns 14.4 Verbs that can incorporate nouns 14.4.1 Two-role verbs that can incorporate nouns 14.4.2 Stative-only verbs that can incorporate nouns 14.4.3 Obligatorily-incorporating verbs 15 Verb suffixes 15.1 Verb distributive suffixes 15.1.1 -ˀse distributive (distr) 15.1.2 -ǫ, -nyǫ, -ǫ-nyǫ, -hnǫ, -hsǫ, -drǫ, -srǫ distributives (distr) 15.2 Role-adding suffixes 15.2.1 Causative (caus) suffixes (-hd, -ˀd, and -d) 15.2.1.1 -hd causative 15.2.1.2 -ˀd causative 15.2.1.3 -d causative 15.2.2 Benefactive (ben) suffixes (-hs and -ę, -nih) 15.2.2.1 -hs benefactive 15.2.2.2 -ę, -ni benefactive 15.3 Change-of-state suffixes 15.3.1 -hsd causative-instrumental (caus-instr) 15.3.2 -(ę)ˀ inchoative (inch) 15.3.3 -(n)heˀ inchoative (inch) 15.4 Movement suffixes 15.4.1 -hs, -hn, -ˀn, -h-, -ˀh, -ˀdr dislocative (disl) 15.4.2 Dislocative stative-aspect verbs with -hk former or -:k modz suffixes 15.4.2.1 +ędaˀdr-, +odaˀn-, +ǫdaˀn- (positional verbs with disl suffixes) 15.4.3 -gy progressive (prog) 15.4.4 -gw, -go, -hsi reversive (rev) 15.5 Aspect suffixes 15.5.1 Aspect meaning 15.5.2 The habitual, punctual, and stative aspects 15.5.3 Meaning of the habitual aspect 15.5.3.1 Meaning of various habitual aspect suffixes 15.5.4 Meaning of the stative aspect 15.5.4.1 Meaning of stative-only verbs 15.5.4.2 Meaning of three-aspect statives 15.5.4.3 Meaning of stative nouns and agentive stative nouns 15.5.5 Meaning of the punctual aspect 15.5.6 No-aspect and punctual-aspect verbs 15.5.6.1 Meaning of no-aspect verbs 15.5.6.2 no-aspect hypothetical verbs 15.6 Post-aspect (tense) suffixes 15.6.1 Variations on the habitual aspect 15.6.1.1 Habituals with -gęhę:ˀ past or -hk former 15.6.1.2 Habituals with -:k modalizer (modz) 15.6.1.3 Habituals with ‘easy to’ / ‘hard to’ constructions 15.6.2 Variations on the stative aspect 15.6.2.1 Statives with -gęhę:ˀ past, -hne:ˀ rem, or -hk former 15.6.2.2 Statives with -:k modalizer 15.6.2.3 Stative verbs with ‘easy to’ / ‘hard to’ constructions 15.7 Post-aspect suffixes (non-tense) 15.7.1 -ˀs plural (pl) 15.7.2 -sgǫ: facilitative (facil) 15.7.3 -ge: augmentative (aug) 15.7.4 -jihwęh ‘completely, fully’ 16 e-verbs 16.1 The purposive 16.2 Simple motion verb e ‘go’ 16.2.1 Prepronominal prefixes with e ‘go’ 16.2.2 Simple motion verb e ‘go’ in the habitual 16.2.3 Simple motion verb e ‘go’ in the punctual 16.2.4 Simple motion verb e ‘go’ in the stative, with short-e 16.3 Complex motion verbs with e ‘go’ 16.3.1 Complex motion verbs with e ‘go’ in the habitual 16.3.2 Complex motion verbs with e ‘go’ in the punctual 16.3.3 Complex motion verbs with e ‘go’ in the stative 16.4 Dislocative e-verbs 16.4.1 Dislocative e-verbs in the habitual 16.4.2 Dislocative e-verbs in the punctual 16.4.3 Dislocative e-verbs in the stative 16.5 Progressive verbs with e ‘go’ 16.5.1 Stative progressive 16.5.2 Punctual progressive 16.5.3 Habitual progressive 17 Negation 17.1 Negation of verb forms based on the three major aspects 18 Miscellaneous word formation topics 18.1 Possession 18.2 Pluralizing 18.3 Location 19 Sound changes in word formation 19.1 Simplifying two consonants to one 19.2 Preserving, merging, and deleting vowels 19.3 [r] and [hr] 19.4 [dy/gy] and [ty/ky] 19.5 Euphonic sounds 19.5.1 Joiner A [a] 19.5.2 Joiner E [e] 19.5.3 Euphonic D, Y, and W 19.5.4 The prothetic vowel (euphonic [i]) 19.5.5 Euphonic H IV Pronominal prefixes 20 Pronominal prefix meaning 20.1 Person 20.2 Number 20.3 Gender 20.4 Clusivity (inclusive and exclusive) 20.5 Combining person, number, gender, and clusivity 20.5.1 1st person pronominal prefix concepts 20.5.2 2nd person pronominal prefix concepts 20.5.3 3rd person pronominal prefix concepts 20.6 Pronominal prefixes and role 20.6.1 Role and the reflexive and semireflexive prefixes 20.7 Three types of pronominal prefix 20.8 a- and p-series (non-interactive) prefixes 20.8.1 Terminology for a- and p-series (non-interactive) pronominal prefixes 20.8.2 The special status of the 3s ‘it’ role and prefixes 20.9 interactive prefixes 20.9.1 Summary charts, pronominal prefix pronunciation and meaning 20.9.2 Recap: pronominal prefix meaning 21 Pronominal prefix pronunciation 21.1 Sound changes determined by C, A, E, I, and O stems 21.1.1 Determining the first sound of the stem (most verbs, nouns) 21.2 Sound changes at the beginning of the pronominal prefix 21.2.1 Prefixes that sometimes begin with a Y 21.2.2 Prefixes that sometimes begin with YA 21.2.3 Prefixes that sometimes begin with an H 21.2.4 Sound changes: prepronominal prefix-pronominal combinations 21.2.5 Explanation of pronominal prefix tables 21.3 Non-interactive (a- and p-series) prefix pronunciation 21.3.1 1st person, non-interactive (or interactive with implied ‘it’) 21.3.2 2nd person, non-interactive (or interactive with implied ‘it’) 21.3.3 3rd person singular, non-interactive (or interactive with implied ‘it’) 21.3.4 3rd person plural, non-interactive (or interactive with implied ‘it’) 21.4 Interactive prefix pronunciation 21.4.1 1st and 2nd person interactions 21.4.2 3fi>1 and 3fi>2 interactions 21.4.3 3s.m and 1 interactions 21.4.4 3s.m and 2 interactions 21.4.5 3s.fi/3ns and 1 interactions 21.4.6 3s.fi/3ns and 2 interactions 21.4.7 3>3 interactions 21.5 Variation in pronominal prefix pronunciation before O/Ǫ and E/Ę stems 21.5.1 Pronominal prefix variants before O and Ǫ stems 21.5.2 Pronominal prefix variants before E and Ę stems 22 Nouns and pronominal prefix selection 22.1 Unpossessed nouns 22.1.1 Noun suffixes do not affect prefix choice 22.1.2 Body part nouns inflected as unpossessed basic nouns 22.2 Possessed nouns 22.2.1 Possessed basic nouns (p-series) 22.2.2 Possessed body part nouns (a-series) 22.2.3 Body part nouns inflected as possessed basic nouns 23 Kinship terms and pronominal prefix choice 23.1 Verbs functioning as “kinship terms”, a-series prefixes 23.2 Verbs and nouns functioning as “kinship terms”, p-series prefixes 23.3 Interactive kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes 23.3.1 Same-generation kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes 23.3.2 Different-generation kinship terms, interactive pronominal prefixes 23.3.3 Different-generation kinship terms taking non-interactive a- or p-series prefixes 24 Pronominal prefix choice for stative-only verbs 24.1 Personal stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice 24.2 Neuter stative-only verbs and pronominal prefix choice 24.2.1 Neuter stative-only verbs without an incorporated noun, and NV fixed expressions 24.2.2 Neuter stative-only verbs, with noun incorporation 24.2.3 o-V and +V, neuter stative-only verbs with noun incorporation 24.2.4 Neuter stative-only positional verbs, with incorporated noun 24.2.5 ga-V neuter stative-only verbs with noun incorporation 24.2.6 Neuter stative-only counting verbs, with an incorporated noun 24.2.6.1 Navel, belly button, and bottle 24.2.7 Neuter stative-only verbs, incorporating, conveying possession 24.2.7.1 Gahnyo:t, gá:yęˀ, incorporating, conveying possession 24.2.8 Neuter, stative-only verbs (fixed expressions) 25 Pronominal prefix choice for three-aspect verbs 25.1 Pronominal prefix choice for one-role, three-aspect verbs 25.1.1 One-role, three-aspect verbs, a-series prefixes in the habitual and punctual, p prefixes in the stative 25.1.2 One-role, three-aspect verbs that always take p-series prefixes 25.2 Pronominal prefix choice for two- and three-role, three-aspect verbs 25.2.1 Two- and three-role verbs, pronominal prefix choice 25.2.2 Two-role verbs that always take p-series prefixes 25.3 Pronominal prefix choice and variations on aspectual forms 25.3.1 Pronominal prefix choice for variations on the habitual aspect 25.3.2 Pronominal prefix choice for variations on the stative aspect 26 e-verbs and pronominal prefix choice 26.1 Simple and complex motion verb e ‘go’ prefix choice 26.2 Dislocative e-verb prefix choice 26.3 Progressive verb prefix choice V Sentences 27 Simple sentences 27.1 Commands (imperatives) and suggestions 27.1.1 2nd person (‘you’) commands 27.1.2 1st person (‘let me’ or ‘let us’) commands (suggestions) 27.1.3 3rd person (‘someone’) commands 27.1.4 Statements functioning as commands or suggestions 27.1.5 Particles and particle groups used with commands 27.1.6 Negative commands with ahgwih ‘don’t’ 27.1.7 Negative suggestions 27.2 Yes-no questions with gęh, ę:ˀ, and do:gęhs 27.2.1 Yes-no questions with gęh, tęˀ gęh 27.2.2 Tag questions (asking for confirmation from the listener) 27.3 Negative questions 27.4 Equative sentences with linking verbs né:ˀ, deˀgę: 28 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses (no linking words) 28.1 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses sharing the same role 28.2 Sentences with juxtaposed clauses (different roles) 28.2.1 Sentences with á:węˀ, wá:dǫh, á:yęˀ, a:wé:tˀah 28.2.2 Sentences with wę́:do:ˀ, wagyéhsaˀgeh 29 Clauses with linking words (particles) 29.1 Clauses with shęh ‘that’, shęh ni- ‘how, what’, ne:ˀ ‘it is’ 29.2 Conditional clauses with gyę:gwaˀ, gęh, hę:gyeh ‘if, whether’ 29.3 Causative clauses with dęˀ ni:yoht shęh ‘why’, neˀ hǫ:niˀ ‘how’ 29.4 Manner clauses with dęˀ hoˀdęˀ ni- ‘how’, shęh ni:yoht ‘how so’ 29.5 Measuring clauses with do: ... ni- ‘how much, many’ 29.6 Clauses with sǫ́: ... (nˀaht) ‘who’ 29.7 Clauses with dęˀ ... (hoˀdęˀ) ‘what’ 29.8 Clauses with hǫ:(weh) ‘the place where’ 29.9 Clauses with hwę:dǫh, nęh, nę:gyęh hwaˀ, ne:ˀ hwaˀ, etc. ‘when’ 29.10 Clauses with (gaoˀ) shęh niyo:weˀ ‘before, until’ 29.11 Clauses with shęh naˀonisheˀ, tsaˀonisheˀ, tsi- ‘while, when’ 30 Clauses with conjunctions 30.1 Hniˀ ‘and’ conjunction 30.2 Hne:ˀ, Ne:ˀ ... (tsǫ: shęh) ‘but’ 30.3 Nigę́ˀǫh ‘or?’, Giˀ shęh ‘or’, etc. 31 Comparisons, counting, measuring 31.1 Comparisons (more, the same, or less) 31.2 Counting with basic nouns 31.2.1 Counting one object 31.2.2 Counting two objects 31.2.3 Counting three or more objects 31.3 Counting words that are not basic nouns 31.3.1 Counting with placeholder words and placeholder incorporated nouns 31.3.2 Counting without noun incorporation VI Discourse and discourse signposts 32 Word order effects 32.1 First position 32.2 Last position 33 Noun incorporation in discourse 33.1 Non-incorporated nouns in first position 33.2 Excorporated nouns in final position 34 Pronominal prefixes in discourse 34.1 Pronominal prefixes and flexible word order 34.2 Backgrounding and pronominal prefixes 34.3 Foregrounding and pronominal prefixes 35 Discourse markers 35.1 Exclamations 35.2 Evidential markers 35.2.1 Quotation markers 35.2.2 Hearsay markers 35.2.3 Doubt or certainty markers 35.2.4 Possibility markers 35.3 Interactional markers 35.3.1 Agreement markers 35.3.2 Disagreement markers 35.3.3 Acknowledgement markers 35.3.4 Shared knowledge markers 35.4 Topic markers 35.4.1 Topic starters and conclusions 35.4.2 Topic continuation markers 35.4.3 Topic changers 35.4.4 Focus, contrastive focus, and emphasis markers VII Technical notes 36 Technical notes 36.1 Syllable structure 36.2 Prefixes, suffixes, affixes, and stems 36.3 Paradigm, inflection, and conjugation 36.4 Atypical words 36.5 No prepositions 36.6 Potential change-of-state suffixes 36.6.1 -: (vowel length suffixes) 36.6.2 -(h)sˀ (the eventuative) (ev) 36.7 Aspect conjugation classes 36.7.1 List of aspect conjugation classes 36.8 Lexical aspect and sentential aspect 36.9 Utterances, clauses, phrases, and sentences 36.9.1 Simple and complex sentences, clause types 36.9.2 Independent and dependent clauses, relative clauses 36.9.2.1 Dependent statements functioning as “nouns”, and relative clauses VIII Appendices Appendix A: Noun dictionary A.1 Basic nouns ending in -aˀ nsf, -tr-aˀ nmlz-nsf or -hsr-aˀ nmlz-nsf A.2 Body part nouns A.3 Body part nouns (detached or unpossessed) A.4 List of agentive stative nouns A.5 List of stative nouns A.6 Atypical nouns A.7 Frequently-incorporated nouns A.7.1 yaˀda `body' A.7.2 węna `word' A.7.3 (r)ęna `song' A.7.4 rihwa `message' A.7.5 ˀnigǫha `mind' A.8 Instrumental nouns ending in -(h)kwaˀ Appendix B: Verb dictionary B.1 Single-aspect verbs B.1.1 Verbs taking a-series personal prefixes, stative aspect only B.1.2 Verbs taking a-series personal prefixes, habitual aspect only B.1.3 Verbs taking p-series personal prefixes, stative aspect only B.1.4 Verbs taking p-series personal prefixes, habitual aspect only B.1.5 Verbs taking a-series neuter prefixes, stative aspect only B.1.6 Verbs taking a-series neuter prefixes, habitual aspect only B.1.7 Verbs taking p-series neuter prefixes, or varying between p- and a-series neuter prefixes, stative aspect only B.1.8 Verbs taking p-series neuter prefixes, habitual aspect only B.1.9 Conjugation of the irregular verb +e:s, +i:s, ǫ:s `long' B.1.10 Conjugation of +od `stand', ǫd `attached, put in' B.2 Three-aspect verbs B.2.1 Three-aspect verbs taking neuter prefixes, changing from a- to p-series B.2.2 Three-aspect verbs taking p-series neuter prefixes B.2.3 Three-aspect verbs taking personal prefixes, changing from a- to p-series B.2.4 Three-aspect verbs taking only p-series personal prefixes B.2.5 Three-aspect verbs taking interactive prefixes B.3 List of e-verbs B.3.1 Simple verb of motion e `go' with a-series personal prefixes B.3.2 Complex verbs of motion with e `go', taking a-series pronominal prefixes B.3.3 Complex verbs of motion with e `go', taking a-series neuter pronominal prefixes B.3.4 Complex verbs of motion with e `go', taking p-series pronominal prefixes B.3.5 Complex verbs of motion with e `go', taking p-series neuter pronominal prefixes B.3.6 Complex verbs of motion with e `go', taking interactive pronominal prefixes B.4 List of counting verbs B.4.1 ǫ: `be a certain amount', `three or more', `a few' B.4.2 +age: `a number of items' B.4.3 d `stand' and ǫd `attached' B.4.4 a...-yahshe: `two living things' B.4.5 p...-gaˀdeˀ `many' Appendix C: Particle dictionary C.1 Particle order C.2 A particles C.3 D particles C.4 E, Ę particles C.5 G particles C.6 H particles C.7 I particles C.8 J particles C.9 N particles C.10 O particles C.11 Ǫ particles C.12 S particles C.13 T particles C.14 W particles C.15 Y particles Appendix D: Thematic dictionary D.1 Kinship terms D.2 Terms of address D.3 Words for human beings D.4 Clans D.5 Nations D.6 Chiefs D.6.1 Onondaga Chiefs D.6.2 Seneca Chiefs D.6.3 Cayuga Chiefs D.6.4 Mohawk Chiefs D.6.5 Oneida Chiefs D.6.6 Miscellaneous D.7 Months D.8 Periods of time in the day D.9 Yesterday, today, and tomorrow D.10 Seasons and years D.11 Weekdays D.12 Clock time D.12.1 On the hour D.12.2 Past the hour D.12.3 Before, to the hour D.13 Place names D.14 Greetings, origins, and affiliations D.14.1 Greetings, social expressions, leave-taking D.14.2 Asking about jobs D.14.3 Asking someone’s age D.14.4 Asking someone’s name D.14.5 Asking where someone comes from D.15 Numbers and money D.15.1 Counting to 10 D.15.2 Multiples of 10 D.15.3 Multiples of 100 D.15.4 Multiples of 1000 D.15.5 Ordinal numbers D.15.6 Once, twice, three times D.15.7 Money D.16 Government and business D.17 High language D.18 Betting D.19 Ceremonies D.20 Gaihwí:yo: D.21 Games D.22 Medicine D.23 Songs D.24 Social dances and songs D.25 Restricted dances D.26 Miscellaneous dances D.27 Curing dances D.28 Sacred Society dances D.28.1 Sustenance songs D.28.2 Sustenance dances and songs D.29 Important and mythical figures References Index Name index