A Global History of Anti-Apartheid: 'Forward to Freedom' in South Africa (St Antony's Series)

This book explores the global history of anti-apartheid and international solidarity with southern African freedom struggles from the 1960s. It examines the institutions, campaigns and ideological frameworks that defined the globalization of anti-apartheid, the ways in which the concept of solidarity was mediated by individuals, organizations and states, and considers the multiplicity of actors and interactions involved in generating and sustaining anti-apartheid around the world. It includes detailed accounts of key case studies from Europe, Asia, and Latin America, which illustrate the complex relationships between local and global agendas, as well as the diverse political cultures embodied in anti-apartheid. Taken together, these examples reveal the tensions and synergies, transnational webs and local contingencies that helped to create the sense of ‘being global’ that united worldwide anti-apartheid campaigns. Contents 6 Notes on Contributors 8 Abbreviations 11 List of Figures 15 Introduction: Anti-Apartheid in Global History 16 Global History and Anti-Apartheid: Conceptual Frameworks 19 The Scope of the Volume 28 Conclusion 33 Bibliography 41 Part I The Globalisation of Anti-Apartheid 46 Humanitarianism and Human Rights in Global Anti-Apartheid 47 Anti-Apartheid as Humanitarian Intervention? 51 Apartheid as Humanitarian Crisis? 53 Anti-Apartheid and the Politics of Human Rights 58 Individual Compassion and the Boycott 67 Conclusion 69 Bibliography 76 ‘We the People of the United Nations’: The UN and the Global Campaigns Against Apartheid 80 The Evolution of the UN Regime on Apartheid 83 Un Special Committee and the International Campaign Against Apartheid 87 Global Campaigns and the Evolution of International Norms 92 Global Campaigns Against Apartheid and Levers of Influence 98 Conclusion 104 Bibliography 112 From the Theory to the Practice of Liberation: Fanon, May ‘68 and the Black Consciousness Movement in South Africa 117 The Black Consciousness Movement: A History of Empowerment 119 From Black Theology to Black Consciousness: The Impact of the Black Power Movement 122 Frantz Fanon’s Dialectic of Liberation: An Influence on Steve Biko 124 The Class Nature of the Struggle: Richard Turner and the Role of White Liberals 127 The Limits of Solidarity: The Okhela Experiment (1973–1977) 131 Conclusion 134 Bibliography 140 Part II Solidarities 143 Cuba and Apartheid 144 Echoes from Cuito Cuanavale 145 Apartheid as the Cuban Target in Angola 147 ‘El Problema Más Difícil De La Revolución’ 150 Shared Genealogies 152 Non-racial Atlantic 154 Bibliography 160 Race, Socialism and Solidarity: Anti-Apartheid in Eastern Europe 162 Early Postwar Contacts 163 Overcoming Isolation 166 Containing the West: Eastern Europe Alliances on the Global Stage 173 Solidarity ‘At Home’ 175 East-West-South Co-operation? 179 Limits of Solidarity? 182 Eastern European Opposition Movements and the Struggle Against Apartheid 187 After the Fall of State Socialism 190 Bibliography 203 Part III Levers and Networks 212 Yusuf Dadoo, India and South Africa’s Liberation Struggle 213 Entangled Histories: Early Bonds of Afro-Asian Solidarity 217 Setting Up the India Office and the Question of Armed Struggle 224 ‘Dear Mota... Yours Raj Kumar’ 231 Conclusion 234 Postscript 234 Bibliography 246 Anti-Apartheid Goes to Brussels: Forms of Transnational Cooperation Between the Anti-Apartheid Movements of the European Community Countries, 1977–1992 249 Dawn: The Anti-Apartheid Movements and the European Community Before 1979 251 Development: The Anti-Apartheid Movements and the European Community, 1979–1986 255 Maturity: The Liaison Group and the European Community, 1987–1992 260 Conclusion 267 bibliography 273 Afro-Asian Solidarity and the Anti-Apartheid Movement in Japan 275 The ANC and the Afro-Asian Solidarity 277 The Origin and Development of the Japanese Anti-Apartheid Movement 279 Solidarity Through Writing and Translation 283 Conclusion 286 Bibliography 292 Part IV Global Histories 298 Solidarity or Anti-Apartheid? The Polish Opposition and South Africa, 1976–1989 299 The Issue of Polish Refugees 301 The Criticism of the Polish Diaspora in Southern Africa 304 Debates Among Polish Migrants Beyond Southern Africa 308 Conclusion 312 Bibliography 320 Anti-Apartheid, Decolonization and Transnational Solidarity: The Namibian Case 324 Anti-Apartheid and Decolonization 326 Bridging the Gap 328 External Support and Transnational Solidarities 331 Bibliography 341 Index 346 This book explores the global history of anti-apartheid and international solidarity with southern African freedom struggles from the 1960s. It examines the institutions, campaigns and ideological frameworks that defined the globalization of anti-apartheid, the ways in which the concept of solidarity was mediated by individuals, organizations and states, and considers the multiplicity of actors and interactions involved in generating and sustaining anti-apartheid around the world. It includes detailed accounts of key case studies from Europe and Asia, and Latin America, which illustrate the complex relationships between local and global agendas and political cultures embodied in anti-apartheid. Taken together, these examples reveal the tensions and synergies, transnational webs and local contingencies that helped to create the sense of 'being global' felt by anti-apartheid campaigners around the world.