A different perspective on the Carolingian economy : material culture and the role of rural communities in exchange systems of the eighth and ninth centuries

The importance and character of exchange in the Carolingian period has long been a subject of academic debate. There is much discussion on the relative importance of local, regional and international exchange, the role of various groups of actors, and the nature of exchange. What is largely lacking is a consideration of non-elite rural dwellers as constitutive elements in the economy. The present study focusses on the role of rural communities in the development of exchange systems during the Carolingian period. To what extent did the consumptive preferences of rural communities influence the flow of goods at a regional and interregional level? This is examined by cataloguing the finds from Carolingian sites in the Netherlands and comparing their distributions between regions. It can be demonstrated that rural dwellers indeed played a part in developments in the production and distribution of goods. At the same time the conducted analyses do not allow the establishment of a single model of how rural dwellers participated in exchange networks of the period. In fact, this study contends that there is little meaning in determining the relative importance of different groups in society for the establishment and maintenance of exchange networks at any one time. Introduction 9 PART I 17 1. The debate 19 1.1 Historians’ models of the Carolingian economy 21 1.2 Archaeologists’ conceptions of the Carolingian economy 27 1.3 Views on the peasantry in historical and archaeological models 30 1.4 Conclusion 34 2. Laying the groundwork 37 2.1 Data collection for inventory of sites and inventory of finds 38 2.1.1. Inventory of sites: data collection 38 2.1.2. Inventory of sites: the database form 42 2.1.3. Inventory of finds 43 2.2 Methodological issues 44 2.3 The definition of regions 46 3. The effects of formation processes and research methods 53 3.1 Site, inter-site, inter-regional biases 54 3.2 The effects of preservation conditions 59 3.3 Aspects related to features 61 3.4 The effects of excavation methods and publication practices 68 3.5 Discussion 72 3.6 Conclusion 72 PART II 75 4. Ceramics 77 4.1 The Dorestad typo-chronology 79 4.1.1 The fabrics 79 4.1.2 Vessel types 81 4.1.3 The Hoogstraat O and II-IV publication 91 4.1.4 Dating the Dorestad assemblage 94 4.2 Vorgebirge ceramics 98 4.2.1 Research based on fabrics 98 4.2.2 Research based on typology 108 4.3 Mayen ceramics 112 4.4 Meuse-valley ceramics 115 4.5 Other wheel-turned ceramics 117 4.6 Handmade pottery 118 4.7 Analysis of the finds 122 4.7.1 Dating evidence from sites 123 4.7.2 Handmade vs wheel-turned ceramics 141 4.7.3 Analysis of types 147 4.7.4 Fabrics 162 4.7.5 Groups according to function and provenance1 177 4.7.6 Discussion 189 4.8 Conclusion 190 5. The metal artefacts 193 5.1 Production 194 5.2 Metal-working 209 5.2.1 Non-ferrous metal-working 209 5.2.2 Iron-working 210 5.2.3 Conclusion 214 5.3 Artefacts 215 5.3.1 Iron artefacts 215 5.3.2 Copper-alloy objects 221 5.3.3 Artefacts in other metals 242 5.3.4 Coins 243 5.3.5. Conclusion 249 5.4 Conclusion 251 6. Stone artefacts 253 6.1 Millstones 254 6.2 Sharpening tools 259 6.3 Weights 260 6.4 Other artefacts 260 6.5 Conclusion 263 PART III 265 7. Characterisation of artefact distributions 267 7.1 Ceramics 268 7.1.1 Ceramics in neighbouring areas 268 7.1.2 Characterisation of ceramics in the research area238 276 7.2 Metal artefacts 285 7.3 Stone artefacts 290 7.4 Conclusion 292 8. Interpreting the circulation of goods 295 8.1 Physical barriers and routes 296 8.2 New rulers 299 8.3 Ecclesiastical institutions 301 8.4 Elite demand 308 8.5 The role of those involved in transport 312 8.6 Production in a rural context 324 8.7 Rural demand 330 8.8 Discussion: the nature of exchange 336 Bibliography 345 Summary 367 Samenvatting 372 Acknowledgements 377 Curriculum vitae 378 Appendices 381 I. Distribution maps of vessel types 383 II. Distribution maps of fabric groups 403 III. Number of dated contexts per context type for Frick’s disc-broach types (digital) IV. Coins discovered at Carolingian sites in the research area 421 V. Variables recorded in find database 424 VI. Site information (digital)