A Critical Public Relations Approach to Crisis Communication and Management : A Case Study of Malaysia Airlines Flight MH370 Disappearance

"This book proposes a critical public relations approach to analyzing crisis communication with Malaysia Airlines flight 370 (MH370) disappearance (2014-2018) as a case study. It examines the discursive process of Malaysia's crisis response and image building, tracing Malaysia Airlines during the immediate response and the Malaysian establishment until the official suspension of the underwater search. The study features a critical discourse analysis of 84 national media texts and 85 response statements, focusing on three aspects: the national media representations of Malaysia's image, the national carrier and the government's rhetorical strategies of delivering stances and actions, and the dynamic process of image reconstruction and national recovery. The present project contributes to the current research area by integrating both linguistic and public relations perspectives, and more importantly, by highlighting the ideological impact instead of merely behavioral effectiveness in modern communication research. Target readers may find their interest in corporate crisis communication, critical inquiry about political public relations, and the MH370 incident in general."-- Provided by publisher Foreword 6 Preface 8 Acknowledgements 9 Contents 10 Abbreviations 16 List of Figures 18 List of Tables 19 1 MH370 as a National PR Case: Controversy and Challenges 20 1.1 Introduction 20 1.2 Background of Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 Disappearance 20 1.3 Outline of the Incident: Critical Moments of the MH370 Crisis 22 1.4 Malaysia’s Government Image, Patronage Politics, and Airline Governance 24 1.5 Initial Media Representations: A Cooperative yet Inefficient Searcher 26 1.6 The MH370 Controversy: Professionalism, Transparency, and Diplomacy 28 1.7 Influence of MH370 Controversy: Malaysia in PR Challenges 30 1.8 Significance of the Research: Discourse, Crisis, and PR Practice 32 1.9 Research Aims and Research Questions 34 1.10 Organisation of the Book 34 References 35 2 PR Research on National Crises: National Image and Crisis Response 38 2.1 Introduction 38 2.2 (Political) Public Relations, Key Stakeholders, and Social Agents 39 2.3 An Overview of National Image 41 2.3.1 Definition of National Image 41 2.3.2 Fundamental Aspects of National Image 43 2.3.3 Notions of and Differences Between Image, Reputation, and Identity 45 2.4 PR Issues for a Nation: National Crisis, Image, and Recovery 46 2.4.1 Crisis and National Crisis in the PR Context 46 2.4.2 National Image as One Crucial PR Concept 47 2.4.3 Crisis Happening, Image Rebuilding, and National Recovery 49 2.5 Previous Studies of Airline Incidents as (National) Crises 54 2.5.1 Contemporary Politics: Conspiracy as Instances of Disaster Response 54 2.5.2 Journalism Practice: Reflection of Media and National Differences 55 2.5.3 Image Repair: PR Strategies in (National) Airline Crisis Communication 56 2.6 MH370 (and Malaysia) as a Case of Crisis Communication and Management 57 2.7 MH370 and PR Perspective: Crisis Response and Image Repair as Material Action 60 2.7.1 Crisis Recognition and Response as Part of Communication Process 60 2.7.2 National Image Repair and Situational Crisis Communication 61 2.8 MH370 and CDS Perspective: Discourse and Communication as Social Practice 63 2.8.1 Introduction to Critical Discourse Studies 63 2.8.2 CDS Research on National Image and Crisis Representation 64 2.8.3 Fairclough’s Three-Dimensional Model for Discourse and Social Change 66 2.9 An Integrated Approach to Analysing Crisis Response and Image Rebuilding 68 2.9.1 A Historical Review of Critical Investigation into PR Research 68 2.9.2 Integrating PR and CDS I: Framing a Crisis Through Media Discourse 69 2.9.3 Integrating PR and CDS II: Negotiating Responses in Institutional Discourse 70 2.9.4 Integrating PR and CDS III: Identifying Ideologies of Management Practice 71 2.9.5 Towards a Critical PR Approach to Crisis Response and Image Rebuilding 72 References 73 3 Theoretical Framework, Research Methodology, and Data 79 3.1 Introduction 79 3.2 Theoretical Framework and Feasibility of the Research 79 3.3 Introduction to Research Methodology 81 3.4 Systemic Functional Grammar 82 3.5 Transitivity 83 3.5.1 Introduction 83 3.5.2 Material Process 84 3.5.3 Mental Process 85 3.5.4 Relational Process 86 3.5.5 Verbal Process 87 3.5.6 Behavioural Process 87 3.5.7 Summary 87 3.6 Appraisal 88 3.6.1 Introduction 88 3.6.2 Attitude 88 3.6.3 Engagement 91 3.6.4 Summary 94 3.7 Social Actor 94 3.7.1 Introduction 94 3.7.2 Inclusion and Exclusion 94 3.7.3 Activation and Passivation 95 3.7.4 Genericisation and Specification 96 3.7.5 Nomination and Categorisation 96 3.7.6 Summary 97 3.8 Crisis Response Strategies 97 3.8.1 Introduction 97 3.8.2 Denial Posture 98 3.8.3 Diminishment Posture 99 3.8.4 Rebuilding Posture 100 3.8.5 Bolstering Posture 100 3.8.6 Restructuring Posture 101 3.8.7 Summary 102 3.9 Data Collection 103 3.9.1 Time of Production 103 3.9.2 Data Sources 104 3.9.3 Data List 104 3.9.4 Data Collection Process 105 3.9.5 Data Coding and Selection Criteria 107 References 108 4 Crisis Framing and Image Restoration: National Media Representations of Malaysia’s Image in the MH370 Disappearance 110 4.1 Introduction 110 4.2 Period One: Immediate Response 110 4.2.1 National Media Representations of MAS-Related Social Actors 111 4.2.2 National Media Representations of GOV-Related Social Actors 117 4.3 Period Two: SAR Operation and Investigation 124 4.3.1 National Media Representations of GOV-Related Social Actors 124 4.4 Period Three: Discovery of the First Debris 134 4.4.1 National Media Representations of GOV-Related Social Actors 134 4.5 Period Four: Final Suspension 140 4.5.1 National Media Representations of GOV-Related Social Actors 140 4.6 Summary 146 References 146 5 Communication Practice and Institutional Power: Discursive Representations of Crisis Response in the MH370 Disappearance 147 5.1 Introduction 147 5.2 Period One: Immediate Response 147 5.2.1 Neutralising the Loss or Downplaying the Impact as a Corporate Action 148 5.2.2 Negotiating the Attribution of Responsibility as Another Corporate Action 151 5.2.3 Foregrounding the Emotions and Leadership Roles as All-Round Support 154 5.2.4 Boasting of Positive Traits Among General Stakeholders as a Verbal Action 156 5.2.5 Summary: Managing the Immediacy with a Large Degree of Ambiguity 158 5.3 Period Two: SAR Operation and Investigation 159 5.3.1 Rationalising the Loss or the Impact as a Corporate Action 159 5.3.2 Arguing for the Professionalism of MAS as the National Carrier 162 5.3.3 Foregrounding Shared Identities and Legal Arrangement as Airline Support 165 5.3.4 Boasting of the Unwavering Commitments Fulfilled by Stakeholder Groups 167 5.3.5 Clarifying the Loss and/or Reducing the Impact as a Government Action 169 5.3.6 Arguing for the Credibility of GOV During the Investigation Process 175 5.3.7 Boasting of the Positive Traits and Contributions as Another Action 179 5.3.8 Summary: Maintaining Perceived Control in a Prolonged Process 184 5.4 Period Three: Discovery of the First Debris 185 5.4.1 Validating the Loss or Reducing the Impact as a Joint Practice 186 5.4.2 Foregrounding the Emotions and National Solidarity as Collective Support 189 5.4.3 Boasting of the Commitments by MAS, GOV, and Other Groups 191 5.4.4 Summary: Measuring the Level of Breakthrough(s) in a Joint Practice 193 5.5 Period Four: Final Suspension 194 5.5.1 Finalising the Loss or Negative Impact of MH370 as a Government Action 194 5.5.2 Maintaining the Least Attribution of Responsibility as Another Action 195 5.5.3 Summary: Mastering the Partial Truth of the Crisis as a Redefined Conclusion 198 5.6 Summary 199 References 200 6 Discussions and Implications: Discourse and PR Practice 201 6.1 Introduction 201 6.2 Media Discourse, Crisis Framing, and Image Restoration 202 6.2.1 Corporate Image in the MH370 Crisis: MAS as National Carrier of Malaysia 202 6.2.2 Government Image in the Crisis: Representing the Establishment 203 6.2.3 Summary 204 6.3 Institutional Discourse, Crisis Response, and Communication Actions 205 6.3.1 Use of Crisis Response Strategies in the MH370 Crisis: A Summary 205 6.3.2 Restructuring as a New Posture in the MH370 Crisis 207 6.3.3 Linguistic Realisations of Crisis Response Strategies 208 6.3.4 Summary 218 6.4 PR Implications Based on Malaysia’s Crisis Communication and Management 219 6.4.1 Corporate Performances of MAS as National Carrier 219 6.4.2 Political Behaviour of GOV Constituting the Malaysian Establishment 220 6.4.3 Summary 221 6.5 Contributions of a Critical PR Approach to Crisis Communication and Management 222 6.5.1 Relationship Between Discourse, Crisis, and Communication Practices 222 6.5.2 Media Discourse, Institutional Discourse, and Ideological Impact 223 6.5.3 Communication Power, National Recovery, and Identity 224 6.6 Conclusion 225 References 226 Appendices 227 Appendix A: List of News Texts from Bernama 227 Appendix B: List of Media Statements from Malaysia Airlines 232 Appendix C: List of Media Statements from the Malaysian Establishment 234 Appendix D: List of Interim Statements and Safety Investigation Report from Malaysian ICAO 238 Appendix E: List of MH370 Ministerial Tripartite Meeting Joint Communiques 239