A Comprehensive Survey of Rock Art in Upper Tibet: Central and Western Byang Thang (2)

Focusing on the central and western parts of the region, this is the second in a series of five volumes that comprehensively document rock art in Upper Tibet. It examines a panoply of graphic evidence found on stone surfaces, supplying an unprecedented view of the long-term development of culture and religion on a large swathe of the Tibetan Plateau. The pictographs (rock paintings) and petroglyphs (rock carvings), host sites, and descriptions and analyses presented are the direct result of intensive fieldwork conducted by the author in Upper Tibet between 1995 and 2016. Information on rock art production techniques, subject identification, thematic class, mode of presentation, physical condition, estimated age, and relative location are supplied for each piece of rock art. In addition to the datasets, the book offers rock art site descriptions and assesses the cultural, religious and artistic development of these locations. Title Page Copyright page Contents Page List of Figures Figure 1. Bshag bsangs/Shar tshang (S30). The north outcrop/spur (L) is seen just above the road in the middle of photograph. The north-central Spur (L), central Spur (L3) and south-central spur (L) extend in that order on the left side of the image. I Figure 2. The north spur (S30_L1), Bshag bsangs/Shar tshang. Figure 3. Locations of Panels 9, 12, 13 and 14. Panels 10 and 11 are in close proximity to Panel 9 but their exact location has not been recorded. Figure 4. Panel 9 in the rock art of S30_L1. S30_L1_C11: bottom left-hand corner of image (partially cut), S30_L1_C12: middle of the lower part of the image, S30_L1_C13: middle, S30_L1_C14: upper middle, and S30_L1_C15: upper right side. Figure 5. Location of petroglyphs on Panel 18. Figure 6. A Tibetan inscription from the Early Historic or Vestigial periods at S30_L1. Only some of it is legible and the reading given here is not assured: dbang la ’ban kis pal _. Figure 7. The north-central spur of Bshag bsangs (S30_L2). Figure 8. Rock panels on the north edge of the east face of S30_L2. Most of the visible rock surfaces have ground down patches that were apparently made by pilgrims collecting the powdered stone as a sacramental substance. There are no obvious signs at th Figure 9. The central spur of Bshag bsangs (S30_L3). Figure 10. Sector 1 of the central spur (the far northern portion), with panels 1–13 demarcated. Figure 11. Sector 2 of the central spur (the mid-northern portion), with Panels 14–19 (and with Panels 12 and 13). Figure 12. Sector 3 of the central spur (the most southerly portion of the northern half of the spur), with Panels 20–26. Figure 13. The four petroglyphs of Panel 22. S30_L3_C44a: lower right corner, S30_L3_C44b: lower middle, S30_L3_C44c: middle, S30_L3_C44d: upper left corner. Figure 14. Sector 4 of the central spur (the most northerly portion of the southern half of the spur), with Panels 27–31. Figure 15. A Tibetan mantric inscription on a panel south of Panel 29 which reads: Om A hung. It is not clear whether it dates to the Vestigial or Late Historic periods. Figure 16. Sector 5 of the central spur (the southerly portion of the southern half of the spur), with Panels 32–66. Figure 17. Panel 33 of central spur, Bshag bsangs (S30). Visible is the rich cultural tableau of S30_L3_C58. Figure 18. The rock art of Panel 49, central spur, Bshag bsangs (S30). S30_L3_C83: lower right corner, S30_L3_C84: lower middle, S30_L3_C85 and S30_L3_C86: middle, S30_L3_C87: upper middle, S30_L3_C88 to S30_L3_C90: upper left. Figure 19. The South-central spur of Bshag bsangs (S30_L4). The rock art of this locus is clustered around the lower portion of the rock prow. The author’s equipment and supplies for daytime operations are visible in the foreground. Figure 20. Locations of rock art subjects and compositions on the main panel of S30_L4. Figure 21. A portion of the main panel of rock art at S30_L4. Figure 22. The south spur of Bshag bsangs (S30_L5). Figure 1 Spl. Another cave with pictographs on the north side of Rtsid khud mtsho. Photograph by Shen Yun Yao, 2021–2022. Photograph courtesy of the Ni ma Xian Ren min Zheng fu, after Ni ma Xian Ren min Zheng fu (in press: 52 (fig. 3)). This work provides Figure 23. One of the swastikas and an unidentified pictograph in Stong shong brag khung, in an escarpment along the north shore of the salt lake Rtsid skud mtsho. Figure 24. The blue limestone formation of Lo brag. Part of the eponymous settlement can be seen on the left side of the photograph. Figure 25. The red-ochre composition on the upper left side of the photograph depicts a crescent moon, sunburst and clockwise swastika. This cosmologically themed composition can probably be assigned to the Protohistoric period. On the lower right side of Figure 26. A red-ochre swastika oriented in a counter-clockwise direction (Protohistoric period?). A second pictograph, of no obvious pictorial value, can be seen on lower left side of the photograph. Figure 27. This integral red-ochre composition consists of a counter-clockwise swastika surmounted by a conjoined sun and moon symbol near the top of the panel. The two horizontal arms of the swastika are out of sync. Below it is a highly faded conjoined Figure 28. There is one or more Tibetan inscriptions and what appear to be accompanying swastikas pictured in the middle of photograph. The vertically but irregularly aligned mantric inscription in the dbu can script reads: A Om hung. To the right of this Figure 29. A tree pictograph (15 cm in height) and an unidentified red-ochre application above it. Figure 30. An ancient stone and adobe built-in furniture with traces of red and yellow ochre painting in the lowermost cliff shelter at Brag mthu bo che. These structures are likely to have been used for ritual purposes. Their age is undetermined. Figure 31. Lake Dang ra (Dang ra g.yu mtsho) as seen from the north shore. Figure 32. A view of structures enrobing the very summit of an archaic hilltop installation known as Gyam pa’i rdzong. It is on the east side of Lake Dang ra, directly above the famous Yungdrung Bon monastery of Dang ra g.yu bun. Covering an area of at le Figure 33. A few of the all-stone corbelled residential structures in an archaic citadel known as Phyug tsho grog po rdzong (Wealthy Federated Camps Ravine Fortress). The installation is c. 5 km north of the lakeshore village of Phyug tsho. The many ruine Figure 34. The mouth of the defile in which Mgon bdag is located. Prayer flags have been strung across this sacred site by local villagers. The dispersion of ruins is at the base of the orange formation and two-thirds of the way up its inner (right) side. Figure 35. The shrine complex sits on a bench in the left foreground of the photograph, while the light-coloured ruins of the upper residential complex are spread on the slope paralleling the middle reaches of the orange limestone formation. The dark-colo Figure 36. A view of the upper residential complex on the higher reaches of Mgon bdag. Both caves and the remains of freestanding structures can be seen in the image. The prayer flags were hung by local people, who consider the caves sacred. Figure 37. The ruined shrine complex of Mgon bdag overlooking Lake Dang ra. In the foreground are the walls of a now-defunct herders’ shelter built with stones pilfered from the archaeological monument. Figure 38. The shrine complex as seen from the west side. Most of it has been destroyed. Figure 39. The bench upon which the shrine complex sits (middle of the photograph) and other ruined pastoral structures (foreground and right side). Note how the terrain plummets from the bench to join the lake terraces below. Lake terraces, the result of Figure 40. The shrine complex from the southeast. The vestiges of the cubic structure on the lower left side of the image constitute the shrine along the short arm of the L-shaped plan of the complex. The low-lying walls in the middle and right side of th Figure 41. The shrine on the short arm of the L (middle left) and traces of the south and central shrines along the long arm of the L (middle right and right side). These latter structures were mostly dismantled to build the adjoining pastoral camp (foreg Figure 42. The shrine of the short arm of the L as seen from the south. To the left are the ruins of the south and central shrines along the long arm of the L-shaped plan. Figure 43. The cubic shrine of the short arm of the L-shaped plan as seen from the north (middle of image) and adjacent walls of the ruined pastoral camp. Figure 44. Traces of the south and central shrines of the long arm of the L-shaped plan (middle of image) as seen from the west. Only tiny coherent wall sections in these two structures have survived. The north shrine of the long arm of the L-shaped plan Figure 45. The north shrine as viewed from the north. It appears that much of it was dismantled to build the pastoral camp. Figure 46. The north shrine viewed from the west. The gorge running through Mgon bdag is visible in the background. Figure 47. Cave 1 embedded in a mass of conglomerate and the remains of a wall on the south side of the defile at Mgon bdag. Figure 49. The entrance and façade of cave 2 as seen from the interior. Figure 48. Cave 2 with façade on the north edge of the bench at Mgon bdag. The upper residential complex is seen on the slopes directly above the cave. Figure 50. Ruined wall of rock shelter perched in the orange formation directly above the bench at Mgon bdag. Figure 51. A close-up of the outer wall of an inaccessible cave shelter at Mgon bdag. This wall may have once helped to enclose the overhanging formation, creating an entirely sealed space. Figure 52. Another view of the inaccessible rock shelter rising 200 m above the waters of Lake Dang ra. Figure 53. Old trail passing from the upper slopes of Mgon bdag to the lakeside. Figure 54. A partial view of the bench overlooking Lake Dang ra. This relatively level area may have served a special purpose for the inhabitants of Mgon bdag. The lake is situated more than 200 m below. Figure 55. A view of the upper residential complex of Mgon bdag as seen from the slope below. On the lower left side of the photograph are the remains of a revetment, the lowest extant structure of the complex. Above the revetment, on the slope along the Figure 56. The lone structure at the bottom of the upper complex, a highly degraded revetment. This was part of a more extensive structure at one time. Note the orange lichen covering the stones of the wall. Figure 57. The main concentration of ruins in the upper complex. On the extreme upper right side of the photograph is a small cave depository for clay figurines. Below it and to the left are caves along the upper tier of the upper residential complex. The Figure 58. A partial view of the façade and mouth of cave 3 on the top end of the upper tier of the upper residential complex. The standing wall is of more recent construction, while its jutting base was once part of an archaic structure. Figure 59. The masonry and adobe platform, with traces of orange (ochre) and white pigments on the exterior faces, which was built into cave 3 at Mgon bdag. Figure 60. The masonry and mud platform (right), walled cubbyhole (middle) and berm around the opening of a basement (left) found inside cave 3. Note the stone slab forming the roof of the basement around the opening in the floor (lower left corner). Figure 61. Opening to the basement with adobe berm around it inside cave 3. This subterranean space may possibly have had ritual functions and associations with chthonic spirits. Figure 62. The pyramidal façade tinted white and red of cave 5. The design and aspect of cave 5 strongly suggests that it was invested with ritual functions. Note the remains of stone steps leading up to this structure. To the left of the cave a Tibetan l Figure 63. A Tibetan letter A on rear wall of the cave 5. This letter was skillfully written using red and white pigments. The photograph has been digitally enhanced to make this obscured inscription much clearer. Figure 64. Highly degraded ruins of rooms belonging to the upper tier of the upper residential complex. Note the entranceway to cave 4 above the ruins. Figure 65. One of the in situ corbels belonging to a building in the upper tier. This is a tell-tale sign that the structure and others in the upper residential complex possessed an all-stone roof raised in the archaic manner. Figure 66. Remains of the west room of the middle tier of the upper residential complex. In the centre of the photograph is the entrance to cave 6. In the middle foreground a reddish corbel juts out from the rear wall. Only small fragments of the forward Figure 67. Rear wall of the west room in the middle tier. Note the reddish corbel (also seen in Figure 66) and chamber under the rear wall (right side of image). The entrance to cave 6 is on the left side of photograph. Figure 68. East room of the middle tier. Corbels protruding from the rear wall and a niche at ground level are visible in the photograph. Figure 69. Overhead view of the east room of the middle tier. The remains of all four walls are visible. On the slope to the east (upper middle of image) are traces of what may have been a walled enclosure attached to the edifice. Walled enclosures were a Figure 70. The west (middle right) and east (middle left) rooms of the middle tier of the upper residential complex. Left of these rooms are traces of what were probably interconnected forward or downslope rooms or buildings. The façade enclosing cave 5 i Figure 71. A stone and adobe ambry in the rear of cave 7, in the middle tier of the upper residential complex. This structure was painted with three different coloured pigments. To the right is an alcove. Figure 72. Horn of a blue sheep stuck into the wall of cave 7. This object was used as a fastening device. Note the animal hair robe attached to it. Figure 73. Cave 6, with its wall partitioning it into forward and rear chambers. Note the red, beige, and white pigments used to paint the partition and the niche underneath it. Figure 74. Two of the most prominent structures of the lower tier, upper residential complex. A semi-subterranean room built into the formation is on the middle right side of the photograph. The walled structure to the left contains the only intact entran Figure 75. The semi-subterranean room built into a recess in the formation of the lower tier. The remnants of the series of corbelling that once encircled the top of the walls are visible. Figure 76. Forward face of the lowermost recognizable residential structure in the upper residential complex. This wall is punctuated in the middle by an entranceway with a heavy stone lintel. Figure 77. The two ruined cubic shrines of the upper residential complex as seen from downhill. Figure 78. The twin shrines as seen from uphill. Figure 79. The view of magnificent Lake Dang ra from the twin shrines of Mgon bdag. The shelf with the large shrine complex is visible below the upper slopes of the site. On the lower right side of the photograph is the notch in the formation that accesse Figure 80. Note the remnants of a wall still clinging to the rock in the foreground. This was part of a forward structure in the grey outcrop residential complex. Figure 81. Wall footings and a revetment at the foot of the grey outcrop residential complex. Figure 82. A view of what remains of two or more rooms of the grey outcrop residential complex. Figure 83. A red-ochre swastika (30 cm in height) oriented in a counter-clockwise direction, Sog po, Lake Dang ra. Figure 3 Spl. A faint red-ochre counter-clockwise swastikas is visible in the photograph. The Sgrub khang of Dang ra g.yu bun, Rgya sgog Township, Nyi ma County. Photograph by Shen Yun Yao, 2021–2022. Photograph courtesy of the Ni ma Xian Ren min Zheng fu Figure 4 Spl. The same image as Figure 3 Spl., which has been digitally enhanced. It reveals far more details of the pictographic rock art. Directly above the swastika is a sunburst. Above the sunburst are various minor red-ochre applications. To the left Figure 5 Spl. In this unenhanced photograph none of the rock art in the middle of the red-ochre tinted wall are clearly discernable. Dang ra g.yu bun. Photograph by Shen Yun Yao, 2021–2022. Photograph courtesy of the Ni ma Xian Ren min Zheng fu, after Ni Figure 6 Spl. The same image as Figure 5 Spl., which has been digitally enhanced. No less than 23 red-ochre pictographs are recognizable, i.e. groups of horned eagles, tigers, horsemen, and other subjects. Nine horned eagles (khyung) are arrayed on the ri Figure 7 Spl. A close-up view of the uppermost three horned eagles seen in Figure 6 Spl. Photograph by Shen Yun Yao, 2021–2022. Photograph courtesy of the Ni ma Xian Ren min Zheng fu. This image has been digitally enhanced. Figure 8 Spl. A sunburst of ten rays and a linear subject below it that seems to include a counter-clockwise swastika. The image has been enhanced to accentuate the definition of the pictographs. Dang ra g.yu bun. Photograph by Shen Yun Yao, 2021–2022. Ph Figure 10 Spl. A close-up of the line of swastikas and trident-like pictograph on the lower left side of the cave wall seen in Figure 9 Spl. Photograph by Shen Yun Yao, 2021–2022. Photograph courtesy of the Ni ma Xian Ren min Zheng fu. Figure 11 Spl. Sun symbols, crosses, swastikas, and other red-ochre subjects painted on the lower right side of the cave wall seen in Figure 9 Spl. Photograph by Shen Yun Yao, 2021–2022. Photograph courtesy of the Ni ma Xian Ren min Zheng fu. Figure 12 Spl. A close-up of the two sun symbols, four cruciforms, two parallel lines, and a pair of fin-like subjects on the cave wall as seen in Figure 11 Spl. Photograph by Shen Yun Yao, 2021–2022. Photograph courtesy of the Ni ma Xian Ren min Zheng fu Figure 13 Spl. A close-up view of the Tibetan letter A inscribed on the cave wall as seen in Figure 9 Spl. Photograph by Shen Yun Yao, 2021–2022. Photograph courtesy of the Ni ma Xian Ren min Zheng fu. Figure 14 Spl. A chief Yungdrung Bon mantra inscribed on a boulder near the old circumambulatory trail that traces a path around Lake Dang ra. This inscription is found on the outskirts of Dang ra g.yu bun monastery and reads: A A dkar sa le ’od A yang Om Figure 84. The author’s camp in 2011 on the west shore of the salt lake G.yu ’brug tshwa kha, near the Rong dmar Township headquarters. Figure 85. The saddle-like boulder comprising S34_L3 is seen in the foreground. This boulder overlooks the expansive G.yu ’brug tshwa kha basin. Figure 86. The ridgetop on which most of the petroglyphs of Sngon gdong (S35) occur. This boulder-strewn ridgetop is just west of the Sngon gdong valley. Figure 87. The locations of petroglyphs in S35_L5. Figure 88. The locations of petroglyphs in S35_L15. Figure 89. The locations of petroglyphs in S35_L20. Sonam Wangdu (1994: 121 (fig. 132)) gives the size of this boulder face as 1.5 m x 60 cm. Figure 90. The locations of petroglyphs in S35_L41. Figure 91. The locations of petroglyphs in S35_L51. Figure 92. The locations of petroglyphs in S35_L67. Figure 93. The locations of petroglyphs in S35_L78. Figure 94. A view of the Rong dmar Township headquarters and G.yu ’brug tshwa kha from the lower end of Gyam gdong. Photograph taken in 2011. Figure 95. The locations of petroglyphs in S36_L2. Figure 96. Mon dur FS1 is located nearby S37_L1, at c. 4650 m elevation. In the background is Lake G.yu ’brug tshwa kha. Figure 97. Do dril bu from the gravel causeway that leads to it. Figure 98. Looking back from Do dril bu at the isthmus that joins it to the mainland. Figure 99. The south house (left) and central house (right) of the upper terrace, Do dril bu. Figure 100. The north house of the outcrop sector from the rear or west, Do dril bu. This was probably the largest single edifice (interior measures 6.4 m x 3.5 m) on the headland, and it has been named ‘Founders House’. Note the largely intact roof. Also Figure 101. The open interior of ‘Founders House’ looking towards the rear (west). The standing stone in the rear is not an original feature; it was placed in its current upright position relatively recently. Note the various alcoves flanking the large ce Figure 102. A wall buttress in the house in the summit sector, Do dril bu. Note how many corbels and bridging stones converge on this wall for support. After so many centuries this arrangement now seems rather precarious. Figure 103. Two of the counter-clockwise swastikas painted in a white mineral pigment in a cave on Do dril bu. Early Historic or Vestigial periods. The lower swastika is partially cut in the photograph. There is also a linear pictograph in red ochre visib Figure 104. Another counter-clockwise swastika painted in a white mineral pigment in a cave on Do dril bu. Early Historic or Vestigial periods. Figure 105. A Buddhist mantric inscription written in a white mineral pigment that reads: Om A hung. Vestigial period or somewhat later. This inscription, and possibly the large white patch to its left, veil a red-ochre application. The superimposition of Figure 106. Part of the inner or lakeside face of Mu ro ri. Figure 107. A view of the thick foundations that underpinned cliff shelters at the base of the Mthong grol brag escarpment. Figure 108. The ruins of an all-stone corbelled residence on the west branch of the headland of Spos do shar ma. In the background is the rocky mass that formed the core of this ancient island. Figure 109. The remains of a poorly preserved all-stone corbelled edifice on the east branch of the Spos do shar ma headland. Figure 110. The large outcrop called Rdzong dkar po. Seven or eight cliff shelters are found along the base of the formation. Figure 111. One of the cliff shelters in Rdzong dkar po. This multi-roomed structure was split between two levels. Note the stone lintels and corbelling. Figure 112. Another view of the cliff shelter illustrated in Figure 111. Figure 113. A stone and adobe hearth in a rear room of the same cliff shelter. Note the three sacred symbols moulded into the front of the hearth. Figure 114. The cave of Rta ri brag phug / Rta ri brag khung (S40). Figure 115. Overlooking the north side of Da rog mtsho. The large peninsula that seems to be named Sle dmar chen is on the right side of photograph and the island of Do rta sga is on the left. Both these locations support archaic residential edifices and Figure 116. One of the ruined all-stone corbelled edifices on the island of Rdo rta sga. Figure 117. The limestone formation that shelters Lha khang dmar chags (visible on the middle-left side of the photograph). Figure 118. Lha khang dmar chags (S42). The rock art and ‘sacred graffiti’ of the site is on the rock formation and outer walls of the various manmade structures. The east chapel is seen on the far-right side of the photograph. The central and south chape Figure 119. The fresco of the great sage Ta pi hri tsa (made c. AD 1050–1300), who is thought to have lived in the 8th century AD. Figure 120. The east chapel or shrine with a beehive-shaped façade. S42_L2_C1 is to the right of the entranceway, and S42_L2_C2 is directly above the entrance. Figure 121. The central chapel (right half of the photograph) and part of the interconnected south chapel (left half). Figure 122. Pictographs on either side of the entranceway to the central chapel. On the right of photograph is S42_L3_C4; on the left is S34_L3_C8, S34_L3_C9 and part of S34_L3_C10. Figure 123. The three-storey masonry façade of a cliff shelter at Rdzong pi phi (S43). The upper portion of the façade encloses the cave that harbours most of the rock art at the site. The entrance to the cave is visible on the right side of photograph. Figure 124. The flat-topped mountain of Ri rgyal. The rock art site is on the left (south) side of the summit and near the base of the left side of the mesa. Figure 125. The prayer-flag shrine on the highest point of the summit of Ri rgyal (4945m; north end of the mesa). Figure 126. Two of the cubic tombs on the summit of Ri rgyal. A local member of the survey team reclines in the background. Figure 127. An ancient enclosure (5.5 m x 6.2 m). This structure is one of three labelled as Mon dur 2, lower zone of Ri rgyal. Figure 128. The main concentration of structures in the north complex, lower zone of Ri rgyal. These structures are likely to have had funerary ritual and/or burial functions. Figure 129. The largest structure (13m across, up to 70 cm in height) in the north complex, lower zone of Ri rgyal. There are coherent wall fragments near ground level in this irregularly shaped enclosure. Figure 130. A crudely inscribed ma ṇi mantra on the nearly vertical east-oriented face of the boulder. It is best dated to either the Vestigial or Late Historic periods. This is the only significant anthropogenic modification observed at S44_L22. Figure 131. The locations of petroglyphs belonging to S44-L26_C3, S44-L26_C4 and S44-L26_C5. Figure 132. Boulder S44_L30 and view of Ri rgyal looking south. Figure 133. The locations of rock art at S44_L46. Figure 134. The remains of what appears to be a funerary structure 2 m east of S44_L53. Figure 135. The locations of rock art on S44_L56 Figure 136. A view of the boulder S44_L136. Petroglyphs cover almost all the gently inclined top of the boulder visible in the photograph. Figure 137. The locations of petroglyphs in the upper right section of S44_L61, including S44_L61a to S44_L61_C1ae. Figure 138. The locations of petroglyphs in the lower right section of S44_L61, including S44_L61af to S44_L61_C1av and S44_L61_C2. Figure 139. The locations of petroglyphs in the centre-right section of S44_L61, including S44_L61aw to S44_L61_C1cc, with the exception of S44_L61_C1bs. Figure 140. The locations of petroglyphs in the centre-left section of S44_L61, including S44_L61cd to S44_L61_C1ci. Figure 141. The locations of petroglyphs in the lower-left section of S44_L61, including S44_L61cf to S44_L61_C1cq. Figure 142. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L65. Figure 143. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L68. Figure 144. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L73. Figure 145. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L77. Figure 146. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L82. Figure 147. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L83. Figure 148. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L84_C2 with the exception of S44_L84_C2e, S44_L84_C2be and S44_L84_C2bf. Figure 149. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L86. Figure 150. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L90. Figure 151. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L94. Figure 152. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L96. Figure 153. A view of Ri rgyal (S44) from around S44_L98. A corral is visible on the left side of the photograph. Figure 154. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L98. Figure 155. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L99. Figure 156. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L100. Figure 157. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L104. Figure 158. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L105. Figure 159. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L122, except for S44_L122_C4. Figure 160. The locations of petroglyphs in S44_L138. Figure 161. The Dkyil sgrum site (S45) in 2010. The edge of the south outcrop can be seen in the foreground on the bottom-left side of the photograph. A string of prayer flags connects the south and south-central outcrops (middle of the image). A smaller Figure 162. The wide view east from the base of the Dkyil sgrum formation. Figure 163. MD1 photographed from the south. Dkyil sgrum (S45). Figure 164. MD1 photographed from the northwest. Dkyil sgrum. Figure 165. MD2 photographed from the southeast. Dkyil sgrum. Figure 166. MD3 photographed from the north. Dkyil sgrum. Figure 167. A fragment of the double-course perimeter walls of MD3. Figure 168. MD4 photographed from the south. Dkyil sgrum. Figure 169. MD5, the best-preserved funerary structure at Dkyil sgrum, photographed from the east. Note the opening in the middle of the east wall (foreground). Figure 170. MD5 photographed from the northwest. On the right side of the photograph MD4 is visible above MD5. Figure 171. MD5 photographed from the southwest. In the middle of the foreground one stone in the perimeter wall rises 60 cm above ground level, the highest elevation component of any of the Mon dur in Dkyil sgrum. Figure 172. The faint remains of a possible funerary structure behind the author’s camp (32.530633° N/82.269717° E). In the background is the local herder’s winter compound. Figure 173. An old carved plaque at Dkyil sgrum of a religious personality or deity. Figure 174. The main face of the north outcrop. Figure 175. The locations of petroglyphs on the main face of the north outcrop. Figure 176. The locations of petroglyphs in S45_L5. Figure 177. The locations of petroglyphs S45_L7_C4 to S45_L7_C9. This rock art can also be seen in Sonam Wangdu 1994: 100, 101 (fig. 91). Figure 178. The locations of petroglyphs S45_L8_C1 to S45_L8_C9. This rock art can also be seen in Sonam Wangdu 1994: 100, 101 (fig. 91). Figure 179. The locations of petroglyphs in S45_L33_C1. Figure 180. The locations of petroglyphs in S45_L34. Figure 181. The locations of petroglyphs belonging to S45_L51_C4. Figure 182. The dbu can letter ma (7 cm in height) inscribed on a rock surface near S45_L59_C1. The inscription was made using a carving technique popular in rock art attributed to the Early Historic and Vestigial periods. Premodern inscriptions are rare Figure 183. The north side of the main face nexus can be seen along the left side of the photograph, while the outcrop in the middle of the image constitutes the core of the outer nexus. Figure 184. The locations of petroglyphs in S45_L70. Figure 185. The locations of petroglyphs in S45_L71. Figure 186. The south-central outcrop as viewed from the north. Figure 187. The interconnected panels of S45_L91. In addition to the inventoried rock art, there are extremely faint carvings on S45_L91 that have not been surveyed. Figure 188. The locations of petroglyphs in S45_L93. Figure 189. The site of Phru gu dbyar kha. The cave with rock art is hidden in the ravine. Note the perennial stream that flows locally. Figure 190. Part of the Lha mtsho basin. Figure 191. The locations of petroglyphs in Steng rtse mtshams khang (S50). Figure 192. The limestone formations of Brag lung nub ma (S51). The rock art is on the rock bastion in left foreground of photograph. List of Maps Map 1. Map of the Tibetan Plateau and adjoining countries. The TAR (Tibet Autonomous Region) is highlighted in the middle of the map. This region corresponds with what is sometimes called Outer Tibet. Map 2. Location of Upper Tibet, see Map 3 for site locations. Map 3. Locations (digital degrees) of all rock art sites in Upper Tibet surveyed in this work. Map 4.