60 Years of the Loeb-Sourirajan Membrane : Principles, New Materials, Modelling, Characterization, and Applications

60 Years of the Loeb-Sourirajan Membrane: Principles, New Materials, Modelling, Characterization and Applications bring forth theoretical advances, novel characterization techniques, materials development, advanced treatment processes, and emerging applications of membrane-based technologies. The trigger for writing this book is the 2020, 60th anniversary of the first asymmetric polymeric membrane invented by Dr. Sidney Loeb and Dr. Srinivasa Sourirajan (University of California, Los Angeles, USA) on the breakthrough discovery of the semipermeable membrane for seawater desalination. The book places emphasis on the advances of organic and inorganic membranes in different fields, covering not only the primary application of membranes for water and wastewater treatment but also other applications dealing with energy conversion and storage, organic solvent purification, gas separation, and biomedical processes. Provides a comprehensive overview on membrane technologies from the fundamental knowledge of fabrication principle and separation mechanisms to a wide range of applications, including new/emerging processes Covers the use of new/advanced materials (both organic and inorganic), novel membrane fabrication techniques, and cutting-edge characterization methods for the development of advanced membranes Includes advances in computational modeling and simulation of membrane processes 60 Years of the Loeb-Sourirajan Membrane Copyright Contents List of contributors Preface About the editors 1 Ionic liquid–based membranes for gas separation 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Ionic liquids 1.1.2 Gas permeability of room-temperature ionic liquid–based membranes 1.1.2.1 CO2 solubility 1.1.2.2 Solubility selectivity of CO2 in room-temperature ionic liquids and permselectivity of CO2 through room-temperature... 1.1.2.3 CO2 diffusivity 1.2 Ionic liquid–based CO2 separation membranes 1.2.1 Supported ionic liquid membranes 1.2.2 Pressure-resistant ionic liquid–based membranes 1.2.2.1 Polymerized ionic liquid membranes 1.2.2.2 Ionic liquid–based gel membranes 1.2.2.3 Thin ion gel membrane 1.3 CO2-reactive ionic liquid–based facilitated-transport membranes 1.3.1 Design concepts of CO2-reactive ionic liquids and CO2 permeation mechanisms of CO2-reactive ionic liquid–based suppor... 1.3.2 Amine-functionalized ionic liquid–based supported ionic liquid membranes 1.3.3 Amino acid ionic liquid–based supported ionic liquid membranes 1.3.4 Supported ionic liquid membranes containing aprotic heterocyclic anion –based ionic liquids 1.3.5 Supported ionic liquid membranes containing ionic liquids with carboxylate anions 1.4 Ion gel membranes containing task-specific ionic liquids 1.4.1 Ion gel membranes containing amino acid ionic liquids and aprotic heterocyclic anion–based ionic liquids 1.4.2 Ion gel membranes with epoxy amine gel networks 1.5 Conclusion and remarks References 2 Zwitterionic polymers in biofouling and inorganic fouling mechanisms 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Zwitterionic membrane fabrication and characterization 2.2.1 Grafting processes for membrane modification 2.2.1.1 Grafting-from process 2.2.1.2 Grafting-onto process 2.2.2 Membrane modification by in situ modification 2.3 Zwitterionic polymers and inorganic fouling 2.3.1 Zwitterionic polymers and ionic interactions 2.3.2 Mineral scaling on ZI-modified membranes 2.4 Zwitterionic polymers and organic fouling 2.4.1 The Mechanisms of zwitterionic polymers’ resistance to organic fouling 2.4.2 The environmental conditions and organic foulants that influence zwitterionic polymers 2.5 Zwitterionic polymers and biofouling 2.5.1 Zwitterionic polymers and their interaction with prokaryotic cells 2.5.2 Zwitterionic polymers and their interaction with eukaryotic cells 2.6 Conclusions and further remarks Acknowledgement References 3 Recent advances in 3D printed membranes for water applications 3.1 Introduction 3.2 3D printing technologies and classification 3.2.1 Directed energy deposition 3.2.2 Material jetting 3.2.3 Sheet lamination 3.2.4 Binder jetting 3.2.5 Material extrusion 3.2.6 Powder bed fusion 3.2.7 Vat Photopolymerization 3.2.8 Advantages and limitations of 3D printing methods 3.2.9 Role and trend of 3D printing in membrane technology for water applications 3.3 Applications of 3D printing in membrane technology 3.3.1 Membrane fabrication via direct 3D printing 3.3.2 Membrane surface modification via coating aided by 3D printing 3.4 Conclusion and future perspectives References 4 A 15-year review of novel monomers for thin-film composite membrane fabrication for water applications 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Commercial thin-film composite membranes 4.3 Novel amine monomers 4.3.1 Monomers bearing only –NH2 4.3.2 Monomers Bearing –NH2/–OH and –OH/–SO3 4.3.3 Monomers bearing multiple—hydroxyl groups 4.3.4 Monomers for improved chlorine stability 4.4 Novel acyl chloride monomers 4.4.1 Monomers with single/dual COCl 4.4.2 Monomers with three COCls 4.4.3 Monomers with Multiple COCls 4.5 Comparison of novel thin-film composite membranes with commercial membranes 4.6 Conclusion References 5 Recent advances in high-performance membranes for vanadium redox flow battery 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 The development of redox flow batteries 5.1.2 The essential role of membrane in a vanadium redox flow battery 5.2 Inorganic modification 5.2.1 Zero-dimensional nanoparticles 5.2.2 One-dimensional nanowires/nanotubes 5.2.3 Two-dimensional nanosheets/nanoplates 5.3 Organic modification 5.3.1 Covalent modification 5.3.2 Noncovalent modification 5.4 Summary and outlook References 6 Membranes for vanadium-air redox flow batteries 6.1 Introduction 6.2 General description 6.2.1 Working principles 6.2.2 Functional requirements of membranes 6.3 Membrane classifications 6.3.1 Commercial Nafion membranes 6.3.2 Other membranes 6.4 Mechanisms and influences of species crossover 6.4.1 Oxygen permeation 6.4.2 Vanadium ion crossover 6.4.3 Water transport 6.5 Performance-enhancing strategies for membranes 6.6 Summary Acknowledgement References 7 Carbon membrane for the application in gas separation: recent development and prospects 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Designs of carbon membrane 7.2.1 Geometrical classifications 7.2.2 Precursor selection for carbon membrane 7.2.3 Preparation of polymeric membrane 7.2.4 Pyrolysis procedure 7.2.5 Methods for tuning the pore dimension 7.2.6 Module construction 7.3 Gas transport mechanism 7.4 Microstructure characterization 7.4.1 Raman 7.4.2 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 7.4.3 X-ray diffraction 7.4.4 Focused ion beam and transmission electron microscopy 7.5 Overall performance review for each gas pair 7.5.1 Hydrogen purification 7.5.2 Carbon sequestration 7.5.3 Air separation 7.5.4 Natural gas sweetening 7.6 Conclusion and outlook Acknowledgment References 8 Metal-organic framework membranes for gas separation and pervaporation 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Fabrication of pure metal-organic framework membranes 8.3 Metal-organic framework membranes for gas separations 8.4 Computational efforts on metal-organic framework membranes for gas separations 8.5 Metal-organic framework membranes for pervaporation 8.6 Conclusions and outlook References 9 Advanced ceramic membrane design for gas separation and energy application 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Micro-structured ceramic membranes 9.1.2 Phase inversion–assisted fabrication 9.1.3 Micro-channel formation and micro-structure tailoring 9.2 Oxygen-permeable membrane and membrane reactor 9.2.1 Oxygen transport in high-temperature ion conductors 9.2.2 Design of high-performance oxygen permeation membrane 9.2.2.1 Micro-tubes with an open-channel micro-structure design 9.2.2.2 Multichannel (micro-monolithic) design for highly robust oxygen permeation membrane 9.2.2.3 New bio-inspired design for next-generation oxygen separation 9.2.3 Catalytic reactor based on oxygen-permeable membrane 9.3 Ceramic membrane in energy applications 9.3.1 Solid oxide fuel cell 9.3.2 Coextrusion of functional membrane for high-performance micro-tubular-solid oxide fuel cells 9.3.3 New micro-monolithic solid oxide fuel cell and utilization of waste methane 9.3.3.1 Greenhouse gas abatement using ceramic fuel cells 9.3.3.2 Three-dimensional characterization of ceramic membrane 9.4 Conclusion References 10 Recent advances in lithium-ion battery separators with enhanced safety 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Self-shutdown separators 10.3 Mechanically strong separators 10.3.1 Increasing the tensile strength of separators 10.3.2 Increasing the puncture strength of separators 10.4 Nonflammable separators 10.4.1 Ceramic-coated fibrous separators 10.4.2 Separators with flame-retardant additives 10.5 All-solid-state electrolytes 10.5.1 Solid polymer electrolytes 10.5.2 Inorganic all-solid-state electrolytes 10.5.3 Composite organic–inorganic solid electrolytes 10.6 Future perspectives References 11 Silicon-based subnanoporous membranes with amorphous structures 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Development of subnanoporous membranes 11.2.1 Organosilica membranes 11.2.2 Silicon carbide–based membranes 11.2.3 Plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition membranes 11.3 Applications of membrane for gas phase separation 11.3.1 Application of silicon oxide–based membranes for gas separation 11.3.2 Application of silicon-based nonoxide membranes for gas separation 11.3.3 Application of membranes for high-temperature water vapor recovery 11.4 Applications of membranes for solvent separation 11.4.1 Evaluation of the separation energy of solvent mixture 11.4.2 Development and application of organic solvent nanofiltration membranes 11.4.3 Development and application of membranes for organic solvent reverse osmosis 11.5 Application to pervaporation 11.5.1 Pervaporation dehydration using organosilica membranes 11.5.2 Pervaporation of organic solvent mixtures 11.6 Conclusion References 12 Ultrafiltration mixed matrix membranes: metal–organic frameworks as emerging enhancers 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Microenhancers and nanoenhancers 12.3 Antifouling and antibacterial properties 12.4 Dye rejection 12.5 Other applications 12.6 Conclusions and future outlook References 13 Zwitterion-modified membranes for water reclamation 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Classification of zwitterionic polymers 13.2.1 Polybetaines 13.2.2 Polyampholytes 13.3 Antifouling mechanisms of zwitterionic units in membranes 13.3.1 Classification of membrane foulants 13.3.2 Establishment of a hydration layer on the membrane surface 13.3.3 Steric hindrance effect 13.4 Preparation of zwitterion-modified membranes 13.4.1 Modification by blending of zwitterionic polymers 13.4.2 Modification by grafting 13.4.3 Modification by surface coating 13.4.4 Modification by surface quaternization 13.5 Applications of zwitterion-modified polymer membranes 13.5.1 Treatment of natural organic matter in water 13.5.2 Oily wastewater treatment 13.5.3 Textile wastewater treatment 13.5.4 Desalination 13.6 Conclusion and prospects Acknowledgments References 14 Modelling of spiral-wound membrane for gas separation: current developments and future direction 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Construction and flow configuration of spiral-wound membrane 14.3 Modelling strategies 14.3.1 One-dimensional model 14.3.2 Two-dimensional model 14.3.3 Three-dimensional model 14.3.4 Summary of the mathematical models for spiral-wound membrane 14.4 Challenges and future direction in modelling of spiral-wound membrane in gas separation 14.4.1 Multicomponent separation 14.4.2 Effect of pressure drop in feed and permeate channel 14.4.3 Effect of heat transfer within the module 14.5 Conclusion References 15 Modelling flow and mass transfer inside spacer-filled channels for reverse osmosis membrane modules 15.1 Introduction 15.2 One-dimensional model 15.3 Two-dimensional model 15.4 Three-dimensional model 15.5 Conclusion Acknowledgment References 16 Transport model-based prediction of polymeric membrane filtration for water treatment 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Transport phenomena-based models 16.2.1 Osmotic pressure-based models 16.2.1.1 One-dimensional film theory 16.2.1.2 Two-dimensional mass transfer boundary layer model 16.2.1.3 Flow through a rectangular channel 16.2.1.4 A detailed two-dimensional model including the pore flow modelling applicable for nanofiltration 16.3 Gel layer–controlled mechanism 16.3.1 Transient one-dimensional gel layer controlling model coupled with film theory 16.3.2 Transient one-dimensional gel layer–controlling model coupled with a pore flow transport 16.3.3 Modelling of mixed matrix membranes 16.4 Conclusion References 17 Molecular modelling and simulation of membrane formation 17.1 Molecular modelling and simulation 17.1.1 Introduction 17.1.2 Types of simulation methods 17.1.2.1 Electronic scale methods 17.1.2.2 Atomistic-scale methods 17.1.2.2.1 Molecular dynamics simulation 17.1.2.2.2 Monte carlo simulation 17.1.2.3 Meso-scale methods 17.1.2.3.1 Dissipative particle dynamics 17.1.2.3.2 Coarse-grained methods 17.1.3 Section conclusions 17.2 Modelling and simulations of membrane formation 17.2.1 Phase separation 17.2.1.1 Thermally induced separation 17.2.1.2 Nonsolvent-induced phase separation 17.2.1.3 Polymerization-induced phase separation 17.2.2 Dry casting 17.2.3 Interfacial polymerization 17.3 Modelling and simulation on hollow-fiber membrane 17.3.1 Physical mass transfer model 17.3.2 Dissipative particle dynamics 17.3.3 Finite element method 17.4 Simulation and modelling in membrane design 17.4.1 Graphene and two-dimensional carbon material 17.4.2 Zeolite imidazolate framework and metal-organic membranes 17.5 Future trends in molecular simulations of membrane formation References 18 Advanced characterization of membrane surface fouling 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Modelling of surface fouling 18.2.1 Filtration laws 18.2.2 Compression of surface foulant layer 18.2.3 Maturation and retardation of surface foulant layer 18.2.4 Concentration polarization boundary layer 18.3 Online characterization of surface fouling 18.3.1 Direct observation 18.3.2 Optical coherence tomography 18.3.3 Attenuated total reflection–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy 18.3.4 Raman spectroscopy 18.3.5 Fluorescence spectroscopy 18.3.6 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy 18.3.7 Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation 18.3.8 Surface plasmon resonance 18.3.9 Light sheet fluorescence microscopy 18.4 Offline characterization of surface fouling 18.4.1 Microscopic methods 18.4.1.1 Scanning electron microscopy 18.4.1.2 Transmission electron microscopy 18.4.1.3 Atomic force microscope 18.4.1.4 Confocal laser scanning microscopy 18.4.2 Spectroscopic methods 18.4.2.1 Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy 18.4.2.2 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 18.4.2.3 Solid-phase UV–vis spectroscopy 18.4.2.4 Solid-phase fluorescence spectroscopy 18.4.2.5 Infrared spectroscopy and mapping 18.4.2.6 Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy 18.4.2.7 Raman imaging 18.4.2.8 Nuclear magnetic resonance 18.4.2.9 X-ray diffraction 18.4.2.10 X-ray absorption spectroscopy 18.4.3 Other methods 18.4.3.1 Contact angle 18.4.3.2 Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometer 18.4.4 Further data mining via statistical analysis 18.5 Characterization of extracts from the surface foulant layer 18.5.1 Extraction of surface foulants 18.5.2 Chemical composition 18.5.3 Physicochemical properties 18.5.4 Spectroscopic properties 18.5.5 Chromatography 18.5.5.1 Size-exclusion chromatography 18.5.5.2 Reversed-phase chromatography 18.5.5.3 Chromatography and mass spectrometry 18.5.5.4 Asymmetrical-flow field-flow fractionation 18.5.6 Biological properties 18.5.6.1 Adenosine triphosphate content 18.5.6.2 Microbial community structure 18.5.6.3 16S RNA sequence 18.5.6.4 Metagenomics 18.6 Concluding remarks References 19 Reverse osmosis membrane fouling and its physical, chemical, and biological characterization 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Types of membrane fouling 19.2.1 Biofouling 19.2.1.1 Steps in biofilm formation 19.2.1.2 Factors affecting biofilm formation 19.2.2 Inorganic fouling/scaling 19.2.2.1 Stages in scale formation 19.2.2.2 Factors affecting scaling 19.2.3 Organic fouling 19.2.4 Colloidal/particulate fouling 19.3 Membrane fouling characterization 19.3.1 Microscopic techniques 19.3.1.1 Visual inspection: light microscopy 19.3.1.2 Confocal laser scanning microscopy 19.3.1.3 Scanning electron microscopy 19.3.1.4 Atomic force microscopy 19.3.1.5 Other microscopic techniques 19.3.1.5.1 Epifluorescence microscopy 19.3.1.5.2 Differential Interference Contrast Microscopy 19.3.1.5.3 Environmental scanning electron microscopy 19.3.1.5.4 Transmission electron microscopy 19.3.2 Spectroscopic and analytical techniques 19.3.2.1 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy 19.3.2.2 X-ray diffraction 19.3.2.3 X-ray fluorescence 19.3.2.4 X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy 19.3.2.5 Raman spectroscopy 19.3.2.6 Other techniques 19.3.2.6.1 Fluorometry techniques 19.3.2.6.2 Bioluminescence 19.3.2.6.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy 19.3.2.6.4 Photoacoustic spectroscopy 19.3.2.6.5 Gravimetric analysis 19.3.2.6.6 Mass spectrometric and chromatographic techniques 19.4 Conclusions Acknowledgment References 20 Current status of ion exchange membranes for electrodialysis/reverse electrodialysis and membrane capacitive deionizatio... 20.1 Ion exchange membranes in electrodialysis and membrane capacitive deionization systems for water demineralization 20.1.1 Introduction 20.1.2 Electrodialysis 20.1.2.1 Applications of electrodialysis 20.1.2.2 Electrodialysis membranes 20.1.2.2.1 Profiled electrodialysis membranes 20.1.2.2.2 Monovalent-selective electrodialysis membranes 20.1.2.2.3 Bipolar membranes for electrodialysis 20.1.2.2.4 Electrodialysis membranes with nanoparticles 20.1.3 Membrane capacitive deionization 20.1.3.1 Applications of membrane capacitive deionization 20.1.3.2 Membrane capacitive deionization membranes 20.1.3.2.1 Commercial membranes 20.1.3.2.2 Custom-made membranes Homogeneous membranes Pore-filling membranes Composite electrodes with ion exchange property Ion exchange membrane layers with nanoparticles 20.2 Ion exchange membranes for harvesting salinity gradient energy 20.2.1 Introduction 20.2.2 Reverse electrodialysis 20.2.3 Capacitive mixing 20.3 Conclusion and future perspectives Acknowledgments References 21 Reverse osmosis membrane scaling during brackish groundwater desalination 21.1 Introduction 21.2 Established theories for membrane-scaling formation 21.2.1 Scaling thermodynamics 21.2.2 Scaling kinetics 21.3 Membrane scaling in brackish groundwater desalination 21.3.1 Brackish groundwater quality 21.3.2 Scaling types and morphology 21.3.3 Effects of water quality on mineral scaling 21.3.4 Relationships between membrane scaling and permeate flux 21.4 Control strategies for membrane scaling 21.4.1 Feedwater pretreatment 21.4.2 Antiscalants 21.4.3 Operation mode of reverse osmosis system 21.4.4 Scaling-resistant reverse osmosis membrane 21.5 Future challenges for mineral-scaling control References 22 Ceramic membrane in a solid oxide fuel cell–based gas sensor 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Research progress on ceramic membrane 22.3 Issues in developing a micro-solid oxide fuel cell methane sensor 22.4 High temperature O-ring in a fuel cell testing station 22.4.1 Current situation 22.4.2 O-ring characteristics 22.4.3 O-ring performance and thermally resistive filler 22.5 Micro-solid oxide fuel cell methane sensor 22.5.1 Current situation 22.5.2 Sensor development overview 22.5.3 Design and character of the sensor 22.5.4 Sensor development 22.5.4.1 Calibration of methane concentration 22.5.4.2 Measurement of methane concentration in biogas using gas chromatography 22.5.4.3 Sensor performance 22.6 Conclusion Acknowledgment References Index