2021 ASHRAE HANDBOOK -- FUNDAMENTALS (I-P)

I-P_F2021 FrontMatter.fm 2021 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals --- MAIN MENU --- Home Dedicated To The Advancement Of The Profession And Its Allied Industries DISCLAIMER I-P Table of Contents CONTRIBUTORS ASHRAE TECHNICAL COMMITTEES, TASK GROUPS, AND TECHNICAL RESOURCE GROUPS ASHRAE Research: Improving the Quality of Life Preface CHAPTERS --- CHAPTER 01: PSYCHROMETRICS --- 1. Composition of Dry and Moist Air 2. U.S. Standard Atmosphere 3. Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air 4. Thermodynamic Properties of Water at Saturation 5. Humidity Parameters Basic Parameters Humidity Parameters Involving Saturation 6. Perfect Gas Relationships for Dry and Moist Air 7. Thermodynamic Wet-Bulb and Dew-Point Temperature 8. Numerical Calculation of Moist Air Properties Moist Air Property Tables for Standard Pressure 9. Psychrometric Charts 10. Typical Air-Conditioning Processes Moist Air Sensible Heating or Cooling Moist Air Cooling and Dehumidification Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Airstreams Adiabatic Mixing of Water Injected into Moist Air Space Heat Absorption and Moist Air Moisture Gains 11. Transport Properties of Moist Air 12. Symbols References Bibliography Tables Table 1 Standard Atmospheric Data for Altitudes to 30,000 ft Table 2 Thermodynamic Properties of Saturated Moist and Dry Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure, 14.696 psia Table 3 Thermodynamic Properties of Water at Saturation Table 4 Calculated Diffusion Coefficients for Water/Air at 14.696 psia Barometric Pressure Figures Fig. 1 ASHRAE Psychrometric Chart No. 1 Fig. 2 Schematic of Device for Heating Moist Air Fig. 3 Schematic Solution for Example 2 Fig. 4 Schematic of Device for Cooling Moist Air Fig. 5 Schematic Solution for Example 3 Fig. 6 Adiabatic Mixing of Two Moist Airstreams Fig. 7 Schematic Solution for Example 4 Fig. 8 Schematic Showing Injection of Water into Moist Air Fig. 9 Schematic Solution for Example 5 Fig. 10 Schematic of Air Conditioned Space Fig. 11 Schematic Solution for Example 6 Fig. 12 Viscosity of Moist Air Fig. 13 Thermal Conductivity of Moist Air ---CHAPTER 02: THERMODYNAMICS AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES--- 1. Thermodynamics 1.1 Stored Energy 1.2 Energy in Transition 1.3 First Law of Thermodynamics 1.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics 1.5 Thermodynamic Analysis of Refrigeration Cycles 1.6 Equations of State 1.7 Calculating Thermodynamic Properties Phase Equilibria for Multicomponent Systems 2. Compression Refrigeration Cycles 2.1 Carnot Cycle 2.2 Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle Using a Pure Refrigerant or Azeotropic Mixture 2.3 Lorenz Refrigeration Cycle 2.4 Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle Using Zeotropic Refrigerant Mixture 2.5 Multistage Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycles 2.6 Actual Refrigeration Systems 3. Absorption Refrigeration Cycles 3.1 Ideal Thermal Cycle 3.2 Working-Fluid Phase Change Constraints Temperature Glide 3.3 Working Fluids 3.4 Effect of Fluid Properties on Cycle Performance 3.5 Absorption Cycle Representations 3.6 Conceptualizing the Cycle 3.7 Absorption Cycle Modeling Analysis and Performance Simulation Double-Effect Cycle 3.8 Ammonia/Water Absorption Cycles 4. Adsorption Refrigeration Systems 4.1 Symbols References Bibliography Tables Table 1 Thermodynamic Property Data for Example 2 Table 2 Thermodynamic Property Values for Example 4 Table 3 Measured and Computed Thermodynamic Properties of R-22 for Example 5 Table 4 Energy Transfers and Irreversibility Rates for Refrigeration System in Example 5 Table 5 Refrigerant/Absorbent Pairs Table 6 Assumptions for Single-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Model (Figure 20) Table 7 Design Parameters and Operating Conditions for Single-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller Table 8 Simulation Results for Single-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller Table 9 Inputs and Assumptions for Double-Effect Water-Lithium Bromide Model (Figure 21) Table 10 State Point Data for Double-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Cycle (Figure 21) Table 11 Inputs and Assumptions for Single-Effect Ammonia/Water Cycle (Figure 22) Table 12 State Point Data for Single-Effect Ammonia/Water Cycle (Figure 22) Figures Fig. 1 Energy Flows in General Thermodynamic System Fig. 2 Mixture of i and j Components in Constant-Pressure Container Fig. 3 Temperature-Concentration (T-x) Diagramfor Zeotropic Mixture Fig. 4 Azeotropic Behavior Shown on T-x Diagram Fig. 5 Carnot Refrigeration Cycle Fig. 6 Temperature-Entropy Diagram for Carnot Refrigeration Cycle of Example 1 Fig. 7 Carnot Vapor Compression Cycle Fig. 8 Theoretical Single-Stage Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle Fig. 9 Schematic p-h Diagram for Example 2 Fig. 10 Areas on T- s Diagram Representing Refrigerating Effect and Work Supplied for Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle Fig. 11 Processes of Lorenz Refrigeration Cycle Fig. 12 Areas on T-s Diagram Representing Refrigerating Effect and Work Supplied for Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle Using Zeotropic Mixture as Refrigerant Fig. 13 Schematic and Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram for Dual-Compression, Dual-Expansion Cycle of Example 4 Fig. 14 Schematic of Real, Direct-Expansion, Single-Stage Mechanical Vapor-Compression Refrigeration System Fig. 15 Pressure-Enthalpy Diagram of Actual System and Theoretical Single-Stage System Operating Between Same Inlet Air Temperatures tR and t0 Fig. 16 Thermal Cycles Fig. 17 Single-Effect Absorption Cycle Fig. 18 Double-Effect Absorption Cycle Fig. 19 Generic Triple-Effect Cycles Fig. 20 Single-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Cycle Dühring Plot Fig. 21 Double-Effect Water/Lithium Bromide Absorption Cycle with State Points Fig. 22 Single-Effect Ammonia/Water Absorption Cycle --- CHAPTER 03: FLUID FLOW --- 1. Fluid Properties Density 2. Basic Relations of Fluid Dynamics Continuity in a Pipe or Duct Bernoulli Equation and Pressure Variation in Flow Direction Laminar Flow Turbulence 3. Basic Flow Processes Wall Friction Boundary Layer Flow Patterns with Separation Drag Forces on Bodies or Struts Nonisothermal Effects 4. Flow Analysis Generalized Bernoulli Equation Conduit Friction Valve, Fitting, and Transition Losses Control Valve Characterization for Liquids Incompressible Flow in Systems Flow Measurement Unsteady Flow Compressibility Compressible Conduit Flow Cavitation 5. Noise in Fluid Flow 6. Symbols References Bibliography Tables Table 1 Drag Coefficients Table 2 Effective Roughness of Conduit Surfaces Table 3 Fitting Loss Coefficients of Turbulent Flow Figures Fig. 1 Velocity Profiles and Gradients in Shear Flows Fig. 2 Dimensions for Steady, Fully Developed Laminar Flow Equations Fig. 3 Velocity Fluctuation at Point in Turbulent Flow Fig. 4 Velocity Profiles of Flow in Pipes Fig. 5 Pipe Factor for Flow in Conduits Fig. 6 Flow in Conduit Entrance Region Fig. 7 Boundary Layer Flow to Separation Fig. 8 Geometric Separation, Flow Development, and Loss in Flow Through Orifice Fig. 9 Examples of Geometric Separation Encountered in Flows in Conduits Fig. 10 Separation in Flow in Diffuser Fig. 11 Effect of Viscosity Variation on Velocity Profile of Laminar Flow in Pipe Fig. 12 Blower and Duct System for Example 1 Fig. 13 Relation Between Friction Factor and Reynolds Number Fig. 14 Diagram for Example 2 Fig. 15 Valve Action in Pipeline Fig. 16 Effect of Duct Length on Damper Action Fig. 17 Matching of Pump or Blower to System Fig. 18 Differential Pressure Flowmeters Fig. 19 Flowmeter Coefficients Fig. 20 Temporal Increase in Velocity Following Sudden Application of Pressure Fig. 21 Cavitation in Flows in Orifice or Valve --- CHAPTER 04: HEAT TRANSFER --- 1. Heat Transfer Processes Conduction Convection Radiation Combined Radiation and Convection Contact or Interface Resistance Heat Flux Overall Resistance and Heat Transfer Coefficient 2. Thermal Conduction One-Dimensional Steady-State Conduction Two- and Three-Dimensional Steady-State Conduction: Shape Factors Extended Surfaces Transient Conduction 3. Thermal Radiation Blackbody Radiation Actual Radiation Angle Factor Radiant Exchange Between Opaque Surfaces Radiation in Gases 4. Thermal Convection Forced Convection 5. Heat Exchangers Mean Temperature Difference Analysis NTU-Effectiveness (e) Analysis Plate Heat Exchangers Heat Exchanger Transients 6. Heat Transfer Augmentation Passive Techniques Active Techniques 7. Symbols Greek Subscripts References Bibliography Fins Heat Exchangers Heat Transfer, General Tables Table 1 Heat Transfer Coefficients by Convection Type Table 2 One-Dimensional Conduction Shape Factors Table 3 Multidimensional Conduction Shape Factors Table 4 Values of c1 and 1 in Equations (14) to (17) Table 5 Emissivities and Absorptivities of Some Surfaces Table 6 Emissivity of CO2 and Water Vapor in Air at 75°F Table 7 Emissivity of Moist Air and CO2 in Typical Room Table 8 Forced-Convection Correlations Table 9 Natural Convection Correlations Table 10 Equations for Computing Heat Exchanger Effectiveness, N = NTU Table 11 Single-Phase Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Correlations for Plate Exchangers Table 12 Equations for Augmented Forced Convection (Single Phase) Table 13 Microchannel Dimensions Table 14 Active Heat Transfer Augmentation Techniques and Most Relevant Heat Transfer Modes Table 15 Worldwide Status of Active Techniques Table 16 Selected Studies on Mechanical Aids, Suction, and Injection Table 17 Selected Studies on Rotation Table 18 Selected Previous Work with EHD Enhancement of Single-Phase Heat Transfer Figures Fig. 1 (A) Conduction and (B) Convection Fig. 2 Interface Resistance Across Two Layers Fig. 3 Thermal Circuit Fig. 4 Thermal Circuit Diagram for Insulated Water Pipe Fig. 5 Efficiency of Annular Fins of Constant Thickness Fig. 6 Efficiency of Annular Fins with Constant Metal Area for Heat Flow Fig. 7 Efficiency of Several Types of Straight Fins Fig. 8 Efficiency of Four Types of Spines Fig. 9 Rectangular Tube Array Fig. 10 Hexagonal Tube Array Fig. 11 Transient Temperatures for Infinite Slab, m = 1/Bi Fig. 12 Transient Temperatures for Infinite Cylinder, m = 1/Bi Fig. 13 Transient Temperatures for Sphere, m = 1/Bi Fig. 14 Solid Cylinder Exposed to Fluid Fig. 15 Radiation Angle Factors for Various Geometries Fig. 16 Diagram for Example 8 Fig. 17 Diagrams for Example 9 Fig. 18 External Flow Boundary Layer Build-up (Vertical Scale Magnified) Fig. 19 Boundary Layer Build-up in Entrance Region of Tube or Channel Fig. 20 Typical Dimensionless Representation of Forced- Convection Heat Transfer Fig. 21 Heat Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Flow of Water Inside Tubes Fig. 22 Regimes of Free, Forced, and Mixed Convection— Flow in Horizontal Tubes Fig. 23 Diagram for Example 12 Fig. 24 Cross Section of Double-Pipe Heat Exchanger in Example 13 Fig. 25 Plate Parameters Fig. 26 Overall Air-Side Thermal Resistance and Pressure Drop for One-Row Coils Fig. 27 Typical Tube-Side Enhancements Fig. 28 Turbulators for Fire-Tube Boilers Fig. 29 Enhanced Surfaces for Gases Fig. 30 Typical Refrigerant and Air-Side Flow Passages in Compact Automotive Microchannel Heat Exchanger Fig. 31 Microchannel Dimensions Fig. 32 Ratio of Heat Transfer Coefficient with EHD to Coefficient Without EHD as Function of Distance from Front of Module Fig. 33 Heat Transfer Coefficients (With and Without EHD) as Functions of Reynolds Number --- CHAPTER 05: TWO-PHASE FLOW --- 1. Boiling Boiling and Pool Boiling in Natural Convection Systems Maximum Heat Flux and Film Boiling Boiling/Evaporation in Tube Bundles Forced-Convection Evaporation in Tubes Boiling in Plate Heat Exchangers (PHEs) 2. Condensing Condensation on Inner Surface of Tubes Other Impurities 3. Pressure Drop Friedel Correlation Lockhart and Martinelli Correlation Grönnerud Correlation Müller-Steinhagen and Heck Correlation Wallis Correlation Recommendations Pressure Drop in Microchannels Pressure Drop in Plate Heat Exchangers 4. Symbols References Bibliography Tables Table 1 Equations for Natural Convection Boiling Heat Transfer Table 2 Correlations for Local Heat Transfer Coefficients in Horizontal Tube Bundles Table 3 Equations for Forced Convection Boiling in Tubes Table 4 Heat Transfer Coefficient/Nusselt Number Correlations for Film-Type Condensation Table 5 Constants in Equation (29d) for Different Void Fraction Correlations Table 6 Constant and Exponents in Correlation of Lee and Lee (2001) Figures Fig. 1 Characteristic Pool Boiling Curve Fig. 2 Effect of Surface Roughness on Temperature in Pool Boiling of Pentane Fig. 3 Correlation of Pool Boiling Data in Terms of Reduced Pressure Fig. 4 Boiling Heat Transfer Coefficients for Flooded Evaporator Fig. 5 Flow Regimes in Typical Smooth Horizontal Tube Evaporator Fig. 7 Film Boiling Correlation Fig. 8 Origin of Noncondensable Resistance Fig. 9 Qualitative Pressure Drop Characteristics of Two-Phase Flow Regime Fig. 10 Pressure Drop Characteristics of Two-Phase Flow: Variation of Two-Phase Multiplier with Lockhart-Martinelli Parameter Fig. 11 Schematic Flow Representation of a Typical Force-Fed Microchannel Heat Sink (FFMHS) Fig. 12 Thermal Performance Comparison of Different High-Heat-Flux Cooling Technologies Fig. 13 Scanning Electron Microscope Images of Various Nanostructures: (A) Silicon Nanopillars (Enright et al. 2012),(B) High-Aspect-Ratio Silicon Nanopillars (Enright et al. 2012), (C) Silicon Micropost-Pyramids with Silicon Nanograss onSurface (Chen et al. 2011), (D) CuO Nanoblades (Miljkovic et al. 2013), (E) Tobacco Mosaic Virus Template Nanostructure (McCarthy et al. 2012), (F) Zinc Oxide Nanowires (Miljkovic et al. 2013), (G) Boehmitized Aluminum (Kim et al. 2013) and(H) Carbon Nanotubes (Enright et al. 2014) --- CHAPTER 06 : MASS TRANSFER --- 1. Molecular Diffusion Fick’s Law Fick’s Law for Dilute Mixtures Fick’s Law for Mass Diffusion Through Solids or Stagnant Fluids (Stationary Media) Fick’s Law for Ideal Gases with Negligible Temperature Gradient Diffusion Coefficient Diffusion of One Gas Through a Second Stagnant Gas Equimolar Counterdiffusion Molecular Diffusion in Liquids and Solids 2. Convection of Mass Mass Transfer Coefficient Analogy Between Convective Heat and Mass Transfer Lewis Relation 3. Simultaneous Heat and Mass Transfer Between Water-Wetted Surfaces and Air Enthalpy Potential Basic Equations for Direct-Contact Equipment Air Washers Cooling Towers Cooling and Dehumidifying Coils 4. Symbols References Bibliography Tables Table 1 Mass Diffusivities for Gases in Air Table 2 Material Values for Example 4 Figures Fig. 1 Diffusion of Water Vapor Through Stagnant Air Fig. 2 Pressure Profiles for Diffusion of Water Vapor Through Stagnant Air Fig. 3 Equimolar Counterdiffusion Fig. 4 Composite Wall for Example 4 Fig. 5 Nomenclature for Convective Mass Transfer from External Surface at Location x Where Surface Is Impermeable to Gas A Fig. 6 Nomenclature for Convective Mass Transfer from Internal Surface Impermeable to Gas A Fig. 7 Water-Saturated Flat Plate in Flowing Airstream Fig. 8 Mass Transfer from Flat Plate Fig. 9 Vaporization and Absorption in Wetted-Wall Column Fig. 10 Mass Transfer from Single Cylinders in Crossflow Fig. 11 Mass Transfer from Single Spheres Fig. 12 Sensible Heat Transfer j-Factors for Parallel Plate Exchanger Fig. 13 Air Washer Spray Chamber Fig. 14 Air Washer Humidification Process on Psychrometric Chart Fig. 15 Graphical Solution for Air-State Path in Parallel-Flow Air Washer Fig. 16 Graphical Solution of  dh/(hi – h) Fig. 17 Graphical Solution for Air-State Path in Dehumidifying Coil with Constant Refrigerant Temperature --- CHAPTER 07: FUNDAMENTALS OF CONTROL --- 1. GENERAL 1.1 Terminology 1.2 Types of Control Action Two-Position Action Modulating Control Combinations of Two-Position and Modulating 1.3 Classification of Control Components by Energy Source Computers for Automatic Control 2. CONTROL COMPONENTS 2.1 Control Devices Valves Dampers Pneumatic Positive (Pilot) Positioners 2.2 Sensors and Transmitters Temperature Sensors Humidity Sensors and Transmitters Pressure Transmitters and Transducers Flow Rate Sensors Indoor Air Quality Sensors Lighting Level Sensors Power Sensing and Transmission 2.3 Controllers Digital Controllers Electric/Electronic Controllers Pneumatic Receiver-Controllers Thermostats 2.4 Auxiliary Control Devices Relays Equipment Status Other Switches Time Switches Transducers Other Auxiliary Control Devices 3. COMMUNICATION NETWORKS FOR BUILDING AUTOMATION SYSTEMS 3.1 Communication Protocols 3.2 OSI Network Model 3.3 Network Structure BAS Three-Tier Network Architecture Connections Between BAS Networks and Other Computer Networks Transmission Media 3.4 Specifying Building Automation System Networks Communication Tasks 3.5 Approaches to Interoperability Standard Protocols Gateways and Interfaces 4. SPECIFYING BUILDING AUTOMATION SYSTEMS 5. COMMISSIONING 5.1 Tuning Tuning Proportional, PI, and PID Controllers Tuning Digital Controllers Computer Modeling of Control Systems 5.2 Codes and Standards References Bibliography Tables Table 1 Comparison of Fiber Optic Technology Table 2 Some Standard Communication Protocols Applicable to BAS Figures Fig. 1 Example of Feedback Control: Discharge Air Temperature Control Fig. 2 Block Diagram of Discharge Air Temperature Control Fig. 3 Process Subjected to Step Input Fig. 4 Two-Position Control Fig. 5 Proportional Control Showing Variations in Controlled Variable as Load Changes Fig. 6 Proportional plus Integral (PI) Control Fig. 7 Floating Control Showing Variations in Controlled Variable as Load Changes Fig. 8 Typical Three-Way Mixing and Diverting Globe Valves Fig. 9 Typical Single- and Double-Seated Two-Way Globe Valves Fig. 10 Typical Flow Characteristics of Valves Fig. 11 Typical Valve Authority Performance Curves for Linear Devices at Various Percentages of Total System Pressure Drop Fig. 12 Typical Multiblade Dampers Fig. 13 Characteristic Curves of Installed Dampers in an AMCA 5.3 Geometry Fig. 14 Inherent Curves for Partially Ducted and Louvered Dampers (RP-1157) Fig. 15 Inherent Curves for Ducted and Plenum-Mounted Dampers (RP-1157) Fig. 16 Dead-Band Thermostat Fig. 17 Electronic and Pneumatic Control Components Combined with Electronic-to-Pneumatic Transducer (EPT) Fig. 18 Retrofit of Existing Pneumatic Control with Electronic Sensors and Controllers Fig. 19 OSI Reference Model Fig. 20 Hierarchical Network for Three-Tier System Architecture Fig. 21 Response of Discharge Air Temperature to Step Change in Set Points at Various Proportional Constants with No Integral Action Fig. 22 Open-Loop Step Response Versus Time Fig. 23 Response of Discharge Air Temperature to Step Change in Set Points at Various Integral Constants with Fixed Proportional Constant --- CHAPTER 08: SOUND AND VIBRATION --- 1. Acoustical Design Objective 2. Characteristics of Sound Levels Sound Pressure and Sound Pressure Level Frequency Speed Wavelength Sound Power and Sound Power Level Sound Intensity and Sound Intensity Level Combining Sound Levels Resonances Absorption and Reflection of Sound Room Acoustics Acoustic Impedance 3. Measuring Sound Instrumentation Time Averaging Spectra and Analysis Bandwidths Sound Measurement Basics Measurement of Room Sound Pressure Level Measurement of Acoustic Intensity 4. Determining Sound Power Free-Field Method Reverberation Room Method Progressive Wave (In-Duct) Method Sound Intensity Method Measurement Bandwidths for Sound Power 5. Converting from Sound Power to Sound Pressure 6. Sound Transmission Paths Spreading Losses Direct Versus Reverberant Fields Airborne Transmission Ductborne Transmission Room-to-Room Transmission Structureborne Transmission Flanking Transmission 7. Typical Sources of Sound Source Strength Directivity of Sources Acoustic Nearfield 8. Controlling Sound Terminology Enclosures and Barriers Partitions Sound Attenuation in Ducts and Plenums Standards for Testing Duct Silencers 9. System Effects 10. Human Response to Sound Noise Predicting Human Response to Sound Sound Quality Loudness Acceptable Frequency Spectrum 11. Sound Rating Systems and Acoustical Design Goals A-Weighted Sound Level (dBA) Noise Criteria (NC) Method Room Criterion (RC) Method Criteria Selection Guidelines 12. Fundamentals of Vibration Single-Degree-of-Freedom Model Mechanical Impedance Natural Frequency Practical Application for Nonrigid Foundations 13. Vibration Measurement Basics 14. Symbols References Bibliography Tables Table 1 Typical Sound Pressures and Sound Pressure Levels Table 2 Examples of Sound Power Outputs and Sound Power Levels Table 3 Combining Two Sound Levels Table 4 Midband and Approximate Upper and Lower Cutoff Frequencies for Octave and 1/3 Octave Band Filters Table 5 A-Weighting for 1/3 Octave and Octave Bands Table 6 Combining Decibels to Determine Overall Sound Pressure Level Table 7 Guidelines for Determining Equipment Sound Levels in the Presence of Contaminating Background Sound Table 8 Subjective Effect of Changes in Sound Pressure Level, Broadband Sounds (Frequency  250 Hz) Figures Fig. 1 Curves Showing A- and C-Weighting Responses for Sound Level Meters Fig. 2 Sound Transmission Loss Spectra for Single Layers of Some Common Materials Fig. 3 Contour for Determining Partition’s STC Fig. 4 Free-Field Equal Loudness Contours for Pure Tones Fig. 5 Equal Loudness Contours for Relatively Narrow Bands of Random Noise Fig. 6 Frequencies at Which Various Types of Mechanical and Electrical Equipment Generally Control Sound Spectra Fig. 7 NC (Noise Criteria) Curves and Sample Spectrum (Curve with Symbols) Fig. 8 Single-Degree-of-Freedom System Fig. 9 Vibration Transmissibility T as Function of fd / fn Fig. 10 Effect of Mass on Transmitted Force Fig. 11 Two-Degrees-of-Freedom System Fig. 12 Transmissibility T as Function of fd/fn1 with k2/k1 = 2 and M2/M1 = 0.5 Fig. 13 Transmissibility T as Function of fd/fn1 with k2/k1 = 10 and M2/M1 = 40 --- CHAPTER 09: THERMAL COMFORT --- 1. Human Thermoregulation 2. Energy Balance 3. Thermal Exchanges with Environment Body Surface Area Sensible Heat Loss from Skin Evaporative Heat Loss from Skin Respiratory Losses Alternative Formulations Total Skin Heat Loss 4. Engineering Data and Measurements Metabolic Rate and Mechanical Efficiency Heat Transfer Coefficients Clothing Insulation and Permeation Efficiency Total Evaporative Heat Loss Environmental Parameters 5. Conditions for Thermal Comfort Thermal Complaints 6. Thermal Comfort and Task Performance 7. Thermal Nonuniform Conditions and Local Discomfort Asymmetric Thermal Radiation Draft Vertical Air Temperature Difference Warm or Cold Floors 8. Secondary Factors Affecting Comfort Day-to-Day Variations Age Adaptation Sex Seasonal and Circadian Rhythms 9. Prediction of Thermal Comfort Steady-State Energy Balance Two-Node Model Multisegment Thermal Physiology and Comfort Models Adaptive Models Zones of Comfort and Discomfort 10. Environmental Indices Effective Temperature Humid Operative Temperature Heat Stress Index Index of Skin Wettedness Wet-Bulb Globe Temperature Wet-Globe Temperature Wind Chill Index 11. Special Environments Infrared Heating Comfort Equations for Radiant Heating Personal Environmental Control (PEC) Systems Hot and Humid Environments Extremely Cold Environments 12. Symbols Codes and Standards References Bibliography Tables Table 1 Parameters Used to Describe Clothing Table 2 Relationships Between Clothing Parameters Table 3 Skin Heat Loss Equations Table 4 Typical Metabolic Heat Generation for Various Activities Table 5 Heart Rate and Oxygen Consumption at Different Activity Levels Table 6 Equations for Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients Table 7 Typical Insulation and Permeation Efficiency Values for Western Clothing Ensembles Table 8 Insulation and Permeability Values for a Selection of Non-Western Clothing Ensembles Table 9 Garment Insulation Values Table 10 Equations for Predicting Thermal Sensation Y of Men, Women, and Men and Women Combined Table 11 Model Parameters Table 12 Evaluation of Heat Stress Index Table 13 Equivalent Wind Chill Temperatures of Cold Environments Figures Fig. 1 Thermal Interaction of Human Body and Environment Fig. 2 Constant Skin Heat Loss Line and Its Relationship to toh and ET Fig. 3 Mean Value of Angle Factor Between Seated Person and Horizontal or Vertical Rectangle when Person Is Rotated Around Vertical Axis Fig. 4 Analytical Formulas for Calculating Angle Factor for Small Plane Element Fig. 5 ASHRAE Summer and Winter Comfort Zones Fig. 6 Air Speed to Offset Temperatures Above Warm-Temperature Boundaries of Figure 5 Fig. 7 Predicted Rate of Unsolicited Thermal Operating Complaints Fig. 8 Relative Performance of Office Work Performance versus Deviation from Optimal Comfort Temperature Tc Fig. 9 Percentage of People Expressing Discomfort Caused by Asymmetric Radiation Fig. 10 Percentage of People Dissatisfied as Function of Mean Air Velocity Fig. 11 Draft Conditions Dissatisfying 15% of Population (PD = 15%) Fig. 12 Percentage of Seated People Dissatisfied as Function of Air Temperature Difference Between Head and Ankles Fig. 13 Percentage of People Dissatisfied as Function of Floor Temperature Fig. 14 Air Velocities and Operative Temperatures at 50% rh Necessary for Comfort (PMV = 0) of Persons in Summer Clothing at Various Levels of Activity Fig. 15 Air Temperatures and Mean Radiant Temperatures Necessary for Comfort (PMV = 0) of Sedentary Persons in Summer Clothing at 50% rh Fig. 16 Predicted Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) as Function of Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) Fig. 17 Effect of Environmental Conditions on Physiological Variables Fig. 18 Effect of Thermal Environment on Discomfort Fig. 19 Effective Temperature ET and Skin Wettedness w Fig. 20 Recommended Heat Stress Exposure Limits for Heat Acclimatized Workers Fig. 21 Variation in Skin Reflection and Absorptivity for Blackbody Heat Sources Fig. 22 Comparing Thermal Inertia of Fat, Bone, Moist Muscle, and Excised Skin to That of Leather and Water Fig. 23 Thermal Inertias of Excised, Bloodless, and Normal Living Skin Fig. 24 Recommended Temperature Set Points for HVAC with PEC Systems and Energy Savings from Extending HVAC Temperature Set Points Fig. 25 Schematic Design of Heat Stress and Heat Disorders Fig. 26 Acclimatization to Heat Resulting from Daily Exposure of Five Subjects to Extremely Hot Room --- CHAPTER 10: INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH --- 1. Background 1.1 Health Sciences Relevant to Indoor Environment Epidemiology and Biostatistics Industrial, Occupational, and Environmental Medicine or Hygiene Microbiology Toxicology 1.2 Hazard Recognition, Analysis, and Control Hazard Control 2. Airborne Contaminants 2.1 Particles Industrial Environments Synthetic Vitreous Fibers Combustion Nuclei Particles in Nonindustrial Environments Bioaerosols 2.2 Gaseous Contaminants Industrial Environments Nonindustrial Environments 3. Physical Agents 3.1 Thermal Environment Range of Healthy Living Conditions Hypothermia Hyperthermia Seasonal Patterns Climate Change Increased Deaths in Heat Waves Effects of Thermal Environment on Specific Diseases Injury from Hot and Cold Surfaces 3.2 Electrical Hazards 3.3 Mechanical Energies Vibration Standard Limits Sound and Noise 3.4 Electromagnetic Radiation Ionizing Radiation Nonionizing Radiation 3.5 Ergonomics 3.6 Outdoor Air Ventilation and Health References Bibliography Tables Table 1 Selected Illnesses Related to Exposure in Buildings Table 2 OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) for Particlesa Table 3 Primary and Secondary Standards for Particle Pollution Table 4 Pathogens with Potential for Airborne Transmission Table 5 Comparison of Indoor Environment Standards and Guidelines Table 6 Selected SVOCs Found in Indoor Environments Table 7 Indoor Concentrations and Body Burden of Selected Semivolatile Organic Compounds Table 8 Inorganic Gas Comparative Criteria Table 9 Approximate Surface Temperature Limits to Avoid Pain and Injury Table 10 Ratios of Acceptable to Threshold Vibration Levels Table 11 Energy, Wavelength, and Frequency Ranges for Electromagnetic Radiation Table 12 2015 Action Levels for Radon Concentration Indoors Figures Fig. 1 Related Human Sensory, Physiological, and Health Responses for Prolonged Exposure Fig. 2 Isotherms for Comfort, Discomfort, Physiological Strain, Effective Temperature (ET), and Heat Stroke Danger Threshold Fig. 3 Factors Affecting Acceptability of Building Vibration Fig. 4 Acceleration Perception Thresholds and Acceptability Limits for Horizontal Oscillations Fig. 5 Median Perception Thresholds to Horizontal (Solid Lines) and Vertical (Dashed Line) Vibrations Fig. 6 Mechanical Energy Spectrum Fig. 7 Electromagnetic Spectrum Fig. 8 Maximum Permissible Levels of Radio Frequency Radiation for Human Exposure --- CHAPTER 11: AIR CONTAMINANTS --- 1. Classes of Air Contaminants 2. Particulate Contaminants 2.1 Particulate Matter Solid Particles Liquid Particles Complex Particles Sizes of Airborne Particles Particle Size Distribution Units of Measurement Harmful Effects of Particulate Contaminants Measurement of Airborne Particles Typical Particle Levels Bioaerosols Controlling Exposures to Particulate Matter 3. Gaseous Contaminants Harmful Effects of Gaseous Contaminants Units of Measurement Measurement of Gaseous Contaminants 3.1 Volatile Organic Compounds Controlling Exposure to VOCs 3.2 Semivolatile Organic Compounds 3.3 Inorganic Gases Controlling Exposures to Inorganic Gases 4. Air Contaminants by Source 4.1 Outdoor Air Contaminants 4.2 Industrial Air Contaminants 4.3 Commercial, Institutional, and Residential Indoor Air Contaminants 4.4 Flammable Gases and Vapors 4.5 Combustible Dusts 4.6 Radioactive Air Contaminants Radon 4.7 Soil Gases References Bibliography Tables Table 1 Approximate Particle Sizes and Time to Settle 1 m Table 2 Relation of Screen Mesh to Sieve Opening Size Table 3 Common Molds on Water-Damaged Building Materials Table 4 Example Case of Airborne Fungi in Building and Outdoor Air Table 5 Major Chemical Families of Gaseous Air Contaminants Table 6 Characteristics of Selected Gaseous Air Con